Medias Impact on Politics Essay -- Government

Here in America, we try to pay close attention to everything that goes on in the government. Whatever decision they make we involve to know when, where, why, and how. This is because whatever decision that they make will determine what will happen with this country as a whole in the long run. So what is the best way to find out whats going on with our government? Why the media of course. The media plays a major part in every spirit of the government including what happens in elections, the reporting of major military operations and how the American people will react to certain political situations or scandals. Here be some the ways that the media affects the way we think when it comes to the government.The Right to Laugh Media Satire and its Role in Politics.In times of political and world turmoil such as the ones we live in today, one may find it impossible to turn on a television or open a theme without finding some work that aims to criticize or express opinion about the stat e of things. Straight ahead and well written essays and reports and serious discussions atomic number 18 always important and the most common method for challenging the status quo. However, in our media saturated world, satires and political comedy are also a logical and potent weapon. Throughout the history of the 20th century and continuing stronger than ever today, political humor and satire has played a significant role in how we as a society perceive, judge, and run our government. True satire is meant to firstly challenge an idea or thought construct and in effect open fire change, all the while making its audience find humor in the idea it challenges. Television programs such as Politically Incorrect with Bill Maher, Dennis moth miller Live, Comedy Centrals... ...ws.mpr.org/features/2003/03/26_losurem_arabtv Hale, E. Arab Media Focus on Another Side of the Conflict. USA Today. Retrieved March 26, 2003, from the World Wide Web http//www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2003-0 3-30-arab-media_x.htm Audiences fragmented and doubting The tough job of communicating with voters (February 5, 2000). The Pew Research Center for People and the Press. Interest Index, Final Topline, January 12-16, 2000. Milbank, D. (October 18, 2000). Tracking Laughs is no Joke in Election Year. The uppercase Post. Retrieved March 24, 2003, from the World Wide Web http//www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A36109-2000Oct18Found=true Moore fires Oscar anti-war salvo (March 24, 2003) The BBC Online Journal. Retrieved March 27 from the World Wide Web http//news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/film/2879857.stm

Case Study on Alcoholism Essay -- substance abuse case study

IntroductionThe ingestion of alcoholic beverages for their enjoyable effects is a custom which has been around for thousands of years, and alcohol continues to be a popular drug because of its short-term effects (Coleman, Butcher & Carson, 1984). An enormous amount of damage can be attributed directly to alcohol abuse as a result of lost jobs, accidents caused by drunk drivers, and so forth (Maltzman, 2000). Alcohol also compounds other problems--an estimated 25% to 40% of hospital patients have problems caused by, or recovery delayed by alcohol abuse (Maltzman, 2000). clinical psychologists spend about one-fourth of their time dealing with people who are suffering in part from alcohol or other substance problems (Vaillant, 1995). Although alcohol problems have been around for so long, it is only tardily that these problems have begun to be associated with medical or psychological difficulties. The first to advocate alcoholism as a disease was Benjamin Rush (1785-1843), and he pull down proposed that hospitals should be established to aid in the treatment of this disease (Cox, 1987). Since Rush, there have been many more definitions of alcoholism including the Statistical Abstracts (1979) account that an alcoholic is specify as ?one who is unable consistently to choose whether he shall drink or not, and if he drinks, is unable consistently to choose whether he shall stop or not. ?Alcoholics with complications? are those who have developed bodily or mental disorders through prolonged excessive drinking? (O?Brien & Chafetz, 1982, p.26). Further, Mark Keller of Quarterly Journal of Studies on drink in March of 1960 stated that alcoholism is a ?chronic disease manifested by repeat implicative drinking so as to ca... ..., Publishers.May, R. (1977). The Meaning of Anxiety. saucy York, NY Washington Square Press.Menninger, W.W. (1994). Psychotherapy and integrated treatment of social phobia and comorbid conditions. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic , 58, A84-A90. Miner, C.M., & Davidson, J.R.T. (1995). Biological characterization of social phobia. European Archives of Psychiatry and clinical Neuroscience, 244, 304-308. Potts, N.L., & Book, S., & Davidson, J.R.T. (1996). The neurobiology of social phobia. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 11, 43-48.Uhde, T.W. (1994). Anxiety and growth disturbances Is there a connection? A review of biological studies in social phobia. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 55, 17-27.Wittchen, H. (2000). The many faces of social anxiety disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 15, S7-S12.

1984 And The Truman Show Essay -- essays research papers

A utopia is a seemingly perfect world, with happiness, honesty, equality, and peace. Although in the novel, 1984, by George Orwell, and the film The Truman Show, directed by Peter Wier, the readers and viewers are presented with a negative utopian society. A negative utopian society is a perfect world that somewhere has gone wrong. The controllers in the novel and film succeeded in achieving complete control and power, which was their attempt to make the ideal society. Each controller has a different threat, in 1984 it is association while in the film, The Truman Show, it is separation from the outside(a) world. In George Orwells 1984, the ruling body, known as the versed party, gains complete control over the people in their country. In all the homes, apartments, business offices, and townsfolk squares, there are telescreens. The telescreens give the ruling body the ability to invade the peoples privacy, and create fear into their lives. The ruling body of 1984 is afraid of unio nisation between the people and their ideas. They believed that if people got together and talked about their ideas about the parties, they would realize that their way of life had not always been like this, ruled by the Inner Party. The Inner Party controls everything that the people in their society does, thinks, says, and acts. Winston Smith, the main character of this novel, begins to realize that he has thoughts from his past and that the...

Analytical Chemistry :: essays research papers

Analytical ChemistryAnalytical Chemistry is the branch of chemistry principally concernedwith determining the chemic patch of materials, which may be solids,liquids, gases, pure elements, compounds, or complex mixtures. In addition,chemical analysis can characterize materials but determining their molecularstructures and measuring much(prenominal) physical properties as pH, color, and solubility.Wet analysis involves the studying of substances that have been submerged in asolution and microanalysis uses substances in very small amounts.Qualitative chemical analysis is used to detect and identify one or moreconstituents of a sample. This process involves a wide variety of tests.Ideally, the tests should be simple, direct, and easily performed with unattachedinstruments and chemicals. Test results may be an instrument reading, andobservation of a physical property, or a chemical reaction. Reactions used inqualitative analysis may attempt to cause a characteristic color, odor,prec ipitate, or gas appear. Identification of an unknown substance isaccomplished when a known one is found with like properties. If none isfound, the uknown substance must be a newly identified chemical. Tests shouldnot use up excessive amounts of a material to be identified. intimately chemicalmethods of qualitative analysis require a very small amount of the sample.Advance instrumental techniques often use less than one millionth of a gram. Anexample of this is mass spectrometry.Quantitative chemical analysis is used to determine the amounts ofconstituents. Most work in analytical chemistry is quantitative. It is alsothe more or less difficult. In principle the analysis is simple. One measures theamount of sample. In practice, however, the analysis is often complicated byinterferences among sample constituents and chemical separations are necessaryto set apart tthe analyte or remove interfering constituents.The choice of method depends on a number of factors Speed, Cost,Accuracy , Convenience, Available equipment, Number of samples, Size of sample,Nature of sample, and Expected concentration. Because these factors are interrelated any final choice of analytical method involves compromises and itis impossible to specify a single best method to carry out a given over analysis inall laboratories under all conditions. Since analyses are carried out undersmall amounts one must be careful when dealing with miscellaneous materials.Carefullly designed sampling techniques must be used to obtan representativesamples.Preparing solid samples for analysis usually involves grinding to reduceparticle size and ensure homogeneity and drying. Solid samples are weighedusing an accurate analytical balance. Liquid or gaseous samples are measureedby volume using accurately calibrated glassware or flowmeters. Many, but notall, analyses are carried out on solutions of the sample. Solid samples thatare insoluble in water must be treated chemically to dissolve them without any

Ben-Hur Video Review Essay -- essays research papers

For many centuries, the Roman Empire dominated the known world. several(prenominal) great emperors brought capital of Italy from a small city in central Italy to the largest world power to date. It didnt happen all at once, but was a softened process. Rome began her quest for power in the last centuries B.C. and continued well into the time of Jesus. Rome ruled with an iron fist and wouldnt go away anyone to communicate out a pile upst the empire. Their plan of conquest consisted of taking an area over by force and then acting friendly with the inhabitants of their newly acquired territories. The motion cipher Ben-Hur tells of a Jewish family who is caught right in the middle of a similar situation with the empire during the days of Jesus.Judah Ben-Hur is the main character in the movie Ben-Hur. He grows up in a wealthy and politically influential family who had everything they could possibly want. plot of land still a young child, Judahs best friend, Messala, moved to Rome fo r education. As the years went by, Judah and Messala never forgot each other. But while in Rome, Messala grew to be a wicked man that would do anything or use anybody to gain amicable prominence. Ordered by the Emperor, Messala returned to his homeland to rule as a Tribune. Judah heard of Messalas return and met him as soon as he arrived. While talking with each other, they decide to see who can throw a javelin more accurately. Both men hit the same target and Judah interpreted this as a sign that Messala still considered them equal. Pr... Ben-Hur Video Review Essay -- essays research papers For many centuries, the Roman Empire dominated the known world. Several great emperors brought Rome from a small city in central Italy to the largest world power to date. It didnt happen all at once, but was a sluggish process. Rome began her quest for power in the last centuries B.C. and continued well into the time of Jesus. Rome ruled with an iron fist and wouldnt allow anyon e to speak out against the empire. Their plan of conquest consisted of taking an area over by force and then acting friendly with the inhabitants of their newly acquired territories. The motion picture Ben-Hur tells of a Jewish family who is caught right in the middle of a similar situation with the empire during the days of Jesus.Judah Ben-Hur is the main character in the movie Ben-Hur. He grows up in a wealthy and politically influential family who had everything they could possibly want. While still a young child, Judahs best friend, Messala, moved to Rome for education. As the years went by, Judah and Messala never forgot each other. But while in Rome, Messala grew to be a wicked man that would do anything or use anybody to gain social prominence. Ordered by the Emperor, Messala returned to his homeland to rule as a Tribune. Judah heard of Messalas return and met him as soon as he arrived. While talking with each other, they decide to see who can throw a javelin more accurately. Both men hit the same target and Judah interpreted this as a sign that Messala still considered them equal. Pr...

Ben-Hur Video Review Essay -- essays research papers

For many centuries, the Roman Empire dominated the known world. Several great emperors brought Rome from a small city in rally Italy to the largest world power to date. It didnt happen all at once, but was a sluggish process. Rome began her quest for power in the support centuries B.C. and continue well into the time of Jesus. Rome ruled with an iron fist and wouldnt allow anyone to speak out against the empire. Their plan of conquest consisted of taking an orbital cavity over by force and then acting friendly with the inhabitants of their newly acquired territories. The motion picture Ben-Hur tells of a Jewish family who is caught right in the middle of a equal situation with the empire during the days of Jesus.Judah Ben-Hur is the main character in the movie Ben-Hur. He grows up in a wealthy and politically important family who had everything they could maybe want. While still a young child, Judahs best friend, Messala, moved to Rome for education. As the years went by, Jud ah and Messala never forgot each other. But plot in Rome, Messala grew to be a wicked man that would do anything or use anybody to gain social prominence. Ordered by the Emperor, Messala returned to his homeland to rule as a Tribune. Judah heard of Messalas return and met him as soon as he arrived. While talking with each other, they decide to see who can impart a javelin more accurately. Both men hit the same target and Judah interpreted this as a sign that Messala still considered them equal. Pr... Ben-Hur Video Review try out -- essays research papers For many centuries, the Roman Empire dominated the known world. Several great emperors brought Rome from a small city in central Italy to the largest world power to date. It didnt happen all at once, but was a sluggish process. Rome began her quest for power in the last centuries B.C. and continued well into the time of Jesus. Rome ruled with an iron fist and wouldnt allow anyone to speak out against the empire. T heir plan of conquest consisted of taking an area over by force and then acting friendly with the inhabitants of their newly acquired territories. The motion picture Ben-Hur tells of a Jewish family who is caught right in the middle of a similar situation with the empire during the days of Jesus.Judah Ben-Hur is the main character in the movie Ben-Hur. He grows up in a wealthy and politically influential family who had everything they could possibly want. While still a young child, Judahs best friend, Messala, moved to Rome for education. As the years went by, Judah and Messala never forgot each other. But while in Rome, Messala grew to be a wicked man that would do anything or use anybody to gain social prominence. Ordered by the Emperor, Messala returned to his homeland to rule as a Tribune. Judah heard of Messalas return and met him as soon as he arrived. While talking with each other, they decide to see who can throw a javelin more accurately. Both men hit the same target and Ju dah interpreted this as a sign that Messala still considered them equal. Pr...

Customer Lifetime Value Essay

Marketing Engineering for Excel is a Microsoft Excel add-in. The software rifles from inside Microsoft Excel and only with data contained in an Excel sp learnsheet. After inserting the software, s signify open Microsoft Excel. A new menu appears, called MEXL. This tutorial refers to the MEXL/ node Lifetime order submenu. overviewCustomer Lifetime Value (one hundred fifty-five) represents a metric of a guests value to the organization oer the entire deny of that customers relationship with a firm. Short-term sales influence CLV, but so do overall customer satisfaction, the churn rate in the atom, and the costs to acquire a new customer and retain an existing customer.The CLV approach helps firms answer such questions asHow much is my customer stupid worth?Taking into account observed churn pass judgment, how some(prenominal) of the currently active customers will still be active in a hardly a(prenominal) years?How much is a customer worth, depending on the incision to which he or she belong tos?If acquiring a new customer costs $150, after how many levels can we recoup this investment?Customer lifetime value analytic thinking considers your database at a instalment level, using the answers you provide to the following questionsHow many divisions do you have in your database, and how many customers per segment?For a given occlusion, how much is a customer worth, on average, in each segment (margins and costs)?What is the likelihood that a customer in segment A will switch to segment B during the next period?Getting StartedA CLV analysis allows you to phthisis your own data directly or a template preformatted by the MEXL software.The next section explains how to create an easy-to- drill template to enter your own data.If you want to run a CLV analysis immediately, open the example file OfficeStar Data (CLV).xls and jump to Step 3 Running analysis (p. 4). By default, the example files install in My Documents/My Marketing Engineering/.Step 1Creating a templateUsing the interactive assistantIn Excel, if you click on MEXL guest LIFETIME VALUE CREATE TEMPLATE, a dialog box appears. This box represents the first step in creating a template to run the CLV analysis software. The first dialog box prompts you to using up an interactive assistant.Unless you are already familiar with the methodology, you should select yes.Listing segmentsThe first step of the template generation exhibit requires you to label and disceptation the segments that you want taken into account. Enter the names of segments to which a customer can belong. Press ENTER or click the Add to list button to add it to the List of Segments.Note that a segment of lost customers always appears in your list. This segment has the following propertiesThere is no activity by these customers (margins and costs enough 0).It entails an absorbing relationship state. As soon as a customer reaches this segment, he or she stays there forever. In separate words, there is 100% chance the customer stays in that segment in the next period, and all other transition probabilities will be equal to 0%.After entering all your segments (at least one), click the OK button to proceed to the next step of the template creation process. Clicking on the OK button generates a template.Not using the interactive assistantYou may skip this intermediary step and create a blank template. When you are prompted to use the interactive assistant, just click no. The following dialog box appearsWhen you click OK, you generate a new blank spreadsheet. You must enter the segment labels manually in the spreadsheet.In this example, if you update the names of the segments in cells B6, B7, and B8, the names of the segments automatically update in the other cells of the spreadsheet.Entering your dataIn this tutorial, we use the example file OfficeStar Data (CLV).xls, which in the default conditions appear in My Documents/My Marketing Engineering/. To view a proper data format, open that spreadsheet in Excel. A snapshot is reproduced below.A typical CLV analysis spreadsheet containsNumber of customers per segment. As of today, how many customers does the company have in each segment? double-dyed(a) margins, or the average margins that the company expects from a customer over each period (e.g., year, quarter), on the basis of the segment to which this customer belongs during that period. In the OfficeStar example, a customer who belongs to the Warm Customer segment should generate $15 of gross margins on average during the next period (e.g., first quarter).Marketing costs, or how much specie the company plans to spend per customer during the next period, according to the segment to which this customer belongs at the beginning of the period. Typically, active customers are followed more closely, receive more aid (e.g., direct marketing solicitations, sales representatives visits), and cost more to the firm.Transition matrix, which summarizes the likelihood a custom er will switch segments during each period. This matrix should be read horizontally, and each line sums to 100% (because all customers appear in some segment). In the OfficeStar example, an active customer has a 75% likelihood of remaining in the same segment and a 25% chance of switching to the warm customer segment.A customers behavior during the previous period determines into which segment that customer is classified, and his or her segment membership then determines the marketing dollars the company should allocate to that customer in the next period. In the OfficeStar example, a customer who belongs to the alert Customer segment generates $90 of gross margins per period (e.g., quarter).Step 3Running analysesAfter entering your data in the Excel spreadsheet using the distract format, click on MEXL CUSTOMER LIFETIME VALUE RUN ANALYSIS. The dialog box that appears indicates the next steps required to perform a CLV analysis of your data.CUSTOMER LIFETIME VALUE V1305225/10Numb er of periods Specify the bout of periods for which you want a detailed CLV analysis. Note that this superior does NOT affect the CLV computations, because the value of a customer always gets estimated over an infinite time horizon (though as time passes and discount rates apply, upcoming revenues have less relative impact). The number of periods affects only the level of output.Discount factor Indicate the discount rate to apply for the value of a dollar spent or received in the in store(predicate) as compared to the current period. A discount rate of 15% means that $100 avail in the next period is only worth $85 in todays dollars. A greater discount factor reduces the impact of future revenues on CLV computations and and then focuses on shorttermprofits. You should increase the discount rate for turbulent or rapidly evolving markets, in which conditions change rapidly and future revenues thus are highly uncertain.Setting Select either Transactional or Contractual depending on the nature of the product or service you are modelling. Contractual models imply the existence of a contract between the transacting parties (e.g., a mobile phone contract between the provider and consumer). Contractual relationships imply continuous transactions and a known end to the contract. Transactional models imply discrete transactions with no implied end to the relationship. For use with our CLV model, the impact of this setting will affect the first period of the analysis. A Contractual setting implies no loss/gain in first month (since the customer is under contract) while the Transactional setting will theorize loss/gain in the first month.The discount factor gets apply after each period, regardless of how you define a period.If you define a period as a quarter, a discount factor of 15% translates into an effective yearly discount rate of almost 48% (15% discount rate applied four times per year). Remember to take this multiplicative effect into account when selecti ng an appropriate discount factor.After selecting these options, you must select the cells containing the data. First, the software asks for ranges of the current segment sizes and profits and costs for each segment, including a row dedicated to permanently lostcustomers. If you use a template generated by Marketing Engineering for Excel, it has already pre-selected the cell ranges.Second, the software asks for a square range that shows the likelihood that a customer in each segment (row) will switch to each segment (column) in the following period.The newly generated spreadsheet contains the results of your CLV analysis.Step 4Interpreting the resultsCustomer lifetime valueThe last column of the CLV table outputs the expect CLV of a customer who currently belongs to a given segment, determined by summing the stream of all future gross margins, minus all future marketing costs, and taking into account both the discount factor and the likelihood of customers switching from one segment to another.These figures also appear in the Lifetime Value chart, shown below.A customer with a negative CLV actually means a loss of money for your firm. Number of customers per segmentThe next table (and chart) shows how many customers will be in each segment at each period of time in the future. The time horizon displayed on the chart matches the number of periods you specified in the Run Analysis options.Note that the Lost Customers segment is not displayed. In most applications, all customers eventually become lost customers, and oversufficient time, all other segments become empty.Customer bases lifetime valueThe third table in the CLV Analysis sheet, denominate the Customer Bases Lifetime Value, summarizes the future stream of revenues and marketing costs over a specified number of future periods (whether cumulative or not) at the global level. Some key elements of this table plot in the third (and last) chart of the spreadsheet.In particular, the Discounted Net Margins (cu mulated) provide an answer to the question Over the next x periods, how much is my customer base worth?Retention ratesThe final tables depict the likelihood that a customer will belong to any segment in any period of time in the future, depending on the segment to which he or she currently belongs. There are as many tables as there are segments in the analysis.In most applications, all customers eventually join the Lost Customers segment. The probability of belonging to that segment thus slowly reaches 1 (100%), and the probabilities of belonging to any other segment trend toward 0 over time.

Fyodor Dostoyevsky: Genius or Not Essay

What makes a person a splendour? Is it thru the lessons that be taught by teachers or is it a inborn phenomenon that we are born with? Some believe that Fyodor Dostoyevsky was a genius because of his epileptic medical condition. We will explore opposite opinions on the matter and debate if epilepsy could make contributed to his creative mind. Dostoyevsky was a Russian novelist who used his psychological interpretations to create dramatic and dark overtones to his stories.It is argued that the dramatic level offts in his life, which included his fling execution, imprisonment in a Siberian jail, and his epileptic seizures, put him in a state of mind that helped him to create his greatest characters. He began to have his epileptic episodes while in prison is Siberia. It has been argued that this experience contributed to his new way of thinking about his personal beliefs and how he viewed the world. Could the epileptic episodes have touched on disclose of the brain that he had never used before?Could it have produced new signals in the brain that created a deeper and more philosophical interpretation of the world he was in? People with epilepsy have an increased risk of poor self-esteem, depression, and suicide. It is not uncommon for people to develop emotional and behavioral problems related to this affection. In his era, epilepsy was not well k square(a)wayn about and its characteristics. Many argued about what type of epilepsy that he had. His wife Anna witnessed some of these fits and wrote about it in her biographies. Dostoyevsky used his illness and suffering as a theme to his some of his stories.It influenced adult maley aspects of his work and enabled him to understand and feel things in such depths which would not have been possible had he not suffered from the disease. Dostoyevsky had an terrible connection into the human psyche. He was more than a writer. He was a psychologist and a philosopher. He did not have any interest in math, scien tific discipline or any type of engineering degree but he did enjoy architecture and drawing. Art was the of import driving force that he tapped into.Could cheat be a foundation of someone beingness a genius? Two particular terms are relative to y analysis of Dostoyevsky genius and epilepsy. What is the definition of genius? Genius is a natural talent, a natural endowment, which cannot be learnt by anyone precisely because it requires to be bestowed directly from the occur of nature upon each individual. (Aiello 663) Two meanings of the term are as follows Extraordinary intellectual power especially as manifested in creative activity and/or a person endowed with transcendent mental superiority specifically a person with a very high IQ. (Webster, Genius) What is the definition of Epilepsy?Epilepsy is a neurological disorder caused by paroxysmal malfunction of neurons in the brain (seizures). It is characterized by strange movements or sensations in parts of the body, odd behavi ors, emotional disturbances, and sometimes convulsions and transitory lapses of consciousness. Seizures may result from abnormal electrical activity in most or all of the brain (generalized), or they may originate in a specific brain area (partial). (Webster, Epilepsy) Epileptic people have different parts of the brain that can be asked.There are three main types of seizures petit mal, grand mal, and focal. Petit mal seizures are typically called an absence seizure. They usually are brief lasting around 15 seconds or less. Grand mal seizures usually involve the all body. People with these types of seizures have vision, smell, taste, hallucinations, sensory changes and dizziness. Focal seizures are considered partial. They can be characterized as simple or complex. Simple ones do not affect awareness or ones memory. Complex seizures affect awareness or memory.They can interfere with the events before, during or immediately after the seizure. They can also affect behavior. He ha d a rare form of secular lobe epilepsy named Ecstatic Epilepsy. Seizures which occurred in the daytime were often preceded by an ecstatic aura, which has led neurologists to theorize that he had temporal lobe epilepsy with secondary grand mal epilepsy. In the four following novels, his characters had epilepsy The Possessed, The Brothers Karamazov, Insulted and Injured and The Idiot.Sigmund Freud, who was a trained neurologist, described Dostoyevskys state as an organic brain disease independent of the psychic constitution. Is an epileptic brain wired differently? Did this attribute to Dostoyevskys dark world? Was this the source of his genius? Dostoevskii was generally presented as a genius, whose talent, however, resided in something other than his artistic accomplishments. (Aiello 660) His unusual type of thinking was attributed to his seizures. Aiello believed that his epilepsy was the main cause of his creative deeds and not a genuine situation of genius that he was born w ith.Dostoyevskys characters displayed atheist behaviors. The worlds of heaven and hell are all around him and he described seeing the universe pursue the unnatural forces of the universe. He shows how the chide can erase his identity from the human conciseness. When translated into abstractions, Dostoevskys psychology is as unimpressive as his political theory. It is merely a derivative of theories propounded by German writers about the unconscious, the role of dreams, the ambivalence of human feelings.What makes it electric in the novels is his ability to dramatize it in scenes of sudden revelation in characters who in todays terminology would be called split personalities, in people twisted by isolation, lust, humiliation, and resentment. (Dostoevsky 544) Dostoevsky further held that the spiritual world of the modern individual, now deprived of the reference points of reason and torn by antipodal strivings, collides not only with the chaos of the social unit but also with the g eneral natural order of the words, the ontological abysses. (Gurvich-Lishchiner 22)Could this phrase be an accurate measurement of how his mind working? The synapsis of his brain not colliding in perfect harmony, reflect them in different directions which create an alternate reality in which he thrives off of? According to Freud, what is generally believed to be epilepsy in men of genius are always straight cases of hysteria. The reality that he delved into, between God and Satan, exists in a lot of his work.This brought the writer back to the globally creative task of confirming that God exists, even in a chaotic and wicked world. (Gurvich-Lishchiner 23). Satan is an abstract basically hiding in plain sight. His perception of how Satan works in the sublunar realm seems to be twisted and unjust. According to Hooten, Dostoevsky propose a dualistic rivalry between God and Satan, but they both acknowledge Satan as a reality manifested by human pride. (Hooten 118) He creates these c haracterizations of the devil as a symbolic way in which he believes a human being thinks and feels. The darkness that empowers him is a fascination that we all explore in our own selves.We fight the redeeming(prenominal) and the bad in our daily lives and with his personal experiences he does the same. It is apparent that Dostoevsky, like all figures in science and the arts, was engaged in a search for his faith, and that this process was the backside of his creative development as a philosopher and man of letters. (Barsht 37). He uses metaphors of the devil to confirm that God really does exist in our chaotic world. He creates this metaphor by having the devil compel us in unthinkable ways and by not allowing us to see or identify the devil but allowing us to hear him and his suggestions. perception and religion are viewed in two entirely different ways thru Dostoevskys eyes. Science needs evidence to determine if something is true or not. Religion is having a greater sense of self and feeling in what you believe. The mind is a complex thing and we need to understand it better. When someone is born are they instantly a genius or does the brain develop over time and introduce things that help to establish the physical description of it when they become of age to identify it? Science demands that the personal life position of the individual be integrated into the known set of hypotheses concerning the structure of the world, which form a sort of changing paradigm (scientific tradition). (Barsht 40) It is documented that he attended seances to investigate in the spiritual world and to see if it really does exist. It seems that Dostoevsky went to the February seance in order to verify his conjectures by dint of personal experience. (Vinitsky 103).I believe this is what began his quest in determining how to fit the devil into his own world and how he could relate to the spiritual side. Dostoevsky believed if a devil doesnt exist, that we then create him i n our own image. He was a very spiritual person and it seems that when he used the Devil, he brought out the good and contrasted it with the bad in his writings. As stated earlier, Dostoevsky thinks that the devil can be created from mans pride. Pride is a state of being that we all have dealt with and can relate to.Pride can create a downward spiral of someones character and produce tragic results. He created these types of works that entered into the human psyche and pulled out these characteristic traits. But can someones pride be altered? Did his health affect this part of his spirit? So to help understand him better, we look at his epileptic nature and wonder if it affected his thinking or how he comprehend things. The mind works in mysterious ways. It is documented that when a person has problems with the brain it could alter their state of mind in which they annot relate to people or things on a normal basis.We can define normal as someone viewing the world the same way tha t we do or who identifies with our own religion and doesnt question it or its intentions. But when someone does seem abnormal we instantly criticize that person and wonder what that person is about. What pushes them into the things they do, see, or hear? All these questions are still being asked of Dostoevsky today. He is criticized for his works and sometimes has been labeled as a gothic writer and others have called him a true genius in which other famous writers are compared to him. Art differs from science in its mediated formation of a vision of the world not out of the sensually perceived material of immediately accessible reality, as in the natural sciences. (Barsht 43)Instead of being seen as abnormal the term art comes into play. We use the term so loosely that we can make it fit into any category that we choose. So, if Dostoevsky had seizures could his art of writing be contributed to this part of his talent? If he didnt experience seizures in his life, would he still pos sess the same thought provoking ideas and creations in his work?There is a great debate in whether Dostoevskiis epilepsy was considered a form of mental illness in which he fostered his ideas from or was his genius a true part of his nature in which he used and pulled from and was the basis for his writing skills. Science demands that the personal life position of the individual be integrated into the known set of hypotheses concerning the structure of the world, which form a sort of dynamic paradigm (scientific tradition). (Barsht 40) Authors are debating and establishing guidelines when authenticating an author. This debate will go on when deciding the true meaning of genius.

Models of Organized Crime Executive Summary Essay

There atomic number 18 two types of organizations within the criminal nicety field they are bureaucratic and patron-client organizations. The bureaucratic organization is an organization that enforces the law. However, the patron-client organization chooses to break the law. There are many differences in the midst of the groups, but there are a few things that they have in common. This paper will describe the difference amongst the main models of organized crimes and explain why the models are necessity for understanding crime.Models of Organized Crime Executive SummaryThe patron-client organization is an association of criminal clients who exchange material and assemble a successful system between the main bosses and prominent political figures. The organization is structured using its hierarchy system that contains one main boss, an underboss, an advisor, Captain, and members (Lyman and Potter, 2007). The organization has a tight bond between the members that exhibits loyalt y to each other. As a result, the boss provides protection to their members.The main boss delegate duties to the underboss. The underboss then provides that information to his captains. The captains have members who carry out the tasks in any case known as doing their dirty work. These commands allow the bosses to stay clear of law enforcement evade apprehension and continue to conduct business as usual. (Lyman and Potter, 2007)bureaucratic and Patron-client OrganizationsBureaucratic organizations are more formal than the patron-clientorganization. The bureaucratic structure consists of tougher rules and regulations, and no decisions exist without prior approval. In the patron-client organization, decisions can be made by other members as long as it benefits the organization. Bureaucratic organizations hold the administrators responsible for financial troubles. The patron-client organization holds everyone financially responsible because it involves all members of the success or fa ilure of the organization (Lyman and Potter, 2007).Similarities and differences criminal organizations resemble the same comparisons. The main purpose is for law enforcement to understand the development of these organizations. According to Mallory (2007) Expert psychologists, sociologist, and criminologist basis models on supporting research, statistics, facts, and information gathered. The information still focuses on the organizational structure, purpose, cause, members, and its clientele. Each model has incorporated detail specific unique features.Why the models are necessary for understanding organized crimeModels are of importance because it recognizes the organization by providing a wide-range of information. This information is very useful to law enforcement because it allows them to invent new strategies of how to deter, prevent, detect and arrest these individuals involved in these organizations. (Lyman and Potter, 2007)The patron-client and bureaucratic organization has one main purpose that is profit. This organization whether legal or illegal has similarities and differences. The structure in both primarily exists with one person in charge of monitoring the success of the organization. These models provide useful information the same as theories. (Lyman and Potter, 2007) Law enforcement uses these tools to allow them, to protect assets while detecting, preventing, apprehending, and deterring the individuals wrongdoers or a highly developed criminal organization. (Lyman and Potter,2007) Organized crime is considered as a legitimate institution that makes it harder for its members to be caught by law. Although these organized crime units are sworn to secrecy, police enforcement is continuously looking for ways to apprehend and take down these organizations.ReferencesLyman, D., & Potter, G. (2007). Understanding Organized Crime (4th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ assimilator Hall.Mallory, S. L. (2007). Understanding Organized Crime. Upper Saddle Rive r, NJ Prentice Hall.

Buddhist Traditions Essay

Buddhism is an Eastern religion practiced in most Asian countries. The religion was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) in the late 6th degree centigrade B.C.E. Even though Buddhism is practiced in many way of lifes, a commonality among these ways is a drawing from the life experiences of the Buddha and his teachings. The spirit or essence of his teachings excessively referred to as dhamma or dharma, serve as models for the religious life. Some of the teachings of judgment that have been an influence of the disciples of Buddha are in regard to having an understanding of suffering and decision the end up to either suffering, and on having mutual appreciate by having right(a) mindfulness and right meditation and the principle of ataman. The beliefs and practice of both Karma and Dharma allow an whizz-on- unitary to avoid ignorance and allow for mutual respect, which in return grants the individual public security and happiness.Buddha set the stage for future Buddhist with his teachings on The Noble Eightfold racecourse and The Principles of Mutual Respect, which many in the humanness brook relate to and use today. What is get it onn about the Noble Eightfold Path? What is Mutual Respect? How whoremaster Buddhism be employ and understood today?History of BuddhaThe many teachings of Buddha were non discovered until the 1st or 2nd century C.E. until the writings of Buaciha Charija (life of the Buddha) by Ashvaghosa gave an circular of Buddhas life. The Buddha who was born in ca. 563 B.C.E. in Lumbini, a place in North India near the Himalayan foothills, began his teachings around Benares (at Sarnath). His era in general was one of ghostly, intellectual, and social ferment. This was the age when the Hindu ideal of renunciation of family and social life by holy persons seeking Truth first became widespread. (Vail, 1982).SufferingBuddha had attained enlightenment dapple sitting under a Bodhi tree (The Buddha & The Bodhi Tree, n.d). He sought to understand suffering, its cause, its end, and the road that led to its end. By the third night he found his outcome which is kn declare as the four magisterial equitys. The first noble truth is the life means suffering (Kniermin, 2009). Human nature and the world is non perfect, therefore, of necessity those in the physical life will suffer from sickness, injury, pain, tiredness, old age, and reddentually death. Humans also suffer psychologically such as sadness, fear, disappointment, frustration, and depression.The second truth is that theorigin of suffering is attachment. Desire causes suffering as does the pursuit of riches and prestige. Those that strive for fame and popularity will also suffer. The third truth is ceasing suffering through nirodha. Nirodha is to not make sensual craving and conceptual attachment. To cease suffering means to remove all cause of suffering through ones actions. To attain perfection in ridding all passions and attachments one would gain Nirvana. To have Nirvana means one no longer worries or has trouble. The fourth truth is that is a gradual path of self-improvement will end all suffering and this can be attained through the following of the Eightfold Path.The Noble Eightfold Path describes the end of suffering through the practice of mental development which was described by Siddhartha Gautama (Kniermin, 2009b). The goal is to excess the individual from attachments and delusions, leading one to understand the truth of all things. The beginning and the end of the path is to have the right view. The right view is to see things as they truly are and understand karma. The first step is to know that all beings suffer and to realize that the view of the world is through thoughts and the right view yields right thoughts and actions.Actions are usually expressed through ones attention. Having the right intentions is having a commitment to ethical and mental self-improvement. The three types of right intentions are 1. to resist desire, 2. strive to avoid feelings of anger, and 3. not think or act in a violent, cruel, or aggressive manner. Although one can have the right intentions one must make an effort. One can have the right effort by preventing unwholesome states. To attain right efforts one must have the right mindfulness. To have a clear consciousness and perceive things as they truly are.The way one conducts oneself is to have the right speech, for words can break or save a person, make enemies or friend, create peace or conk a war. Right speech is the practice of not telling lies, abstaining from slanderous speech, abstaining from harsh words, and abstaining from conversation that has no point. Not exactly is having the right words important, provided having the right action. The right actions is to not take life even oneself and to abstain from robbery, fraud, deceitfulness, dishonesty, and sexualmisconduct.The way earns ones living is to have the right livelihood. One should gain wealth legally and peacefully. Some occupations that are not consider to the right livelihood would be prostitution, selling or buying of weapons, raising animals for slaughter or functional in a simplychery, and selling intoxicants.The eighth principle of the path is to have right concentration. To have right concentration is to establish the mind rightly, which involves all the paths of the noble eightfold (Bhikkhu, 2001 -2009). To establish the right concentration one would use meditation. Tranquil meditation quiets the mind. To enter into right concentration one has to be alert for it can not arise on its own. Once one is able to enter into right concentration one will experience stillness, rapture, and pleasure.Mutual RespectBuddhism teaches one to be mutually respectful of one another since it can lead one down a road of tolerance and acceptance. Mutual respect corresponds to the concept of transact others the way an individual would like to be treated in return. Mutual respect e nsures that trust is present in all interactions. Mutual respect operates indoors the domain of practical reasoning and assists individuals seeking knowledge of what to do and how one should do it, when one wants to build or sustain democracy. However, practical reasoning principles take issue from rules. The journey one follows towards understanding, respecting and trusting others winds through hills and valleys. It can be difficult to find the path and even more difficult to stay on the right path. The belief is that it takes true humility, willingness to first listen, a sober look at ones own shortcomings, and commitment over time, however, this approach will not work for everyone.A common thread in world religions are that the teachings are to improve clementity and improve peoples ethical behavior thereby improving life on earth. An important leason is for people to learn not to be consumed with veridical things but to strive to have a balance between material andspiritual progress. All religions need to work together to make the world a better place. The world needs not only material progress, but also spiritual progress as well. If humans only develop spiritually and do not take care of the material side because people go hungry, and that is not very good either. There needs to be a balance. One does not have to agree with or even necessarily like a person or a religion, but it does ensure that interactions run smoothly.Mutual respect implies recognition that all individuals are human beings together, that in fact, all beings are one. Humans are one and the same, of the same source, each reflecting another aspect of oneself. Instead of looking at differences between groups of people, or indeed between religions, a spiritually oriented person focuses upon similarities. If everyone were to do this, there would be no violence, no wars, no lack of respect for others, and no lack of self-respect.Mutual respect is important because it transforms conflic t into peace, compromise, and production. Respect creates an atmosphere that allows for progress to be made. An individual can not expect to receive respect if he or she does not first offer respect. A person is more willing to take part in understanding something if the individual believes that his or her thoughts, opinions, and feelings will be taken into consideration and respected.Mutual respect is created when people treat others as they want to be treated. As mentioned The Golden Rule, Do unto others as you would have others do unto you brings forth the idea that all things are connected and in relationship to one another. Mutual respect can grow from its own process and dynamics. Be the first to accord respect, and with time, it will develop amongst all he conflicting parties (Beyond Intractability, 2005). If one person is giving respect but not receiving it in return from the other person, conflict is likely to result and could have consequences for both sides. A balance and compromise will result in peace.Buddhism powerfully focuses on the anatman, the inner-self, and obtaining thebalance of peace with both the inner-self and outer-self. Therefore, mutual respect greatly relates to the beliefs of the Buddhist religion in respect to eliminating negative energy. Conflicts and not respecting other individuals would only defeat the purpose of what one is trying to accomplish with Ataman. Buddhists also believes in karma, the consequences of ones actions. This means that if a Buddhist were to deny respect and then in return he or she would suffer the consequences of those actions. This would delay his or her progress towards complete inner and outer peace.The Buddhist religion also discourages ignorance, or lack of knowledge, which can be a result of ignoring mutual respect. All the problems we experience during daily life originate from ignorance and the method for eliminating ignorance is to practice Dharma (About Buddha, 2007). Dharma is the act of de fend oneself from suffering and from problems. By practicing mutual respect an individual can avoid any unnecessary conflict or problems that would get in the way obtaining peace and happiness. Practicing Dharma is the supreme method for improving the quality of our human life (About Buddha, 2007). By granting mutual respect in all subject matters, an individual improves the quality of his or her life.Buddhist SectsMutual respect is realized in many Buddhist sects. Buddhas teachings giveed far beyond the area in which he began and formed two primary winding divisions. The original teachings of Buddha are the Southern School, called Theravada or better known as Way of the Elders. Theravada is mainly taught in the Southeast Asian countries. The Northern School is referred to as Mahayana or The Greater Vehicle, and is comprised of countries in the North (Fisher, 2002 p. 157).Many writings came from these sects. Those who follow the teachings of Theravada studied older writings called the Pali Canon. A collection of Buddhas teachings, the Pali Canon was compiled after Buddhas death by a council of five hundred monks who had studied under him. From the Southern School is the Triple Gem which is a collection of Buddha, dharma and sangha. These were used in order for one to convert to Buddhism. Meditations were also very important. One of the techniques was Vipassana meditation. Theword Vipassana can be translated to mean discernment. This was important because by developing insight helps to calm, focus and watch the mind (Fisher, 2002, p. 161).From the Northern School, Mahayana teachings were referred to as the path of compassion and metaphysics. Though they had the respect of the Southern School, these were teachings that reached beyond those of the Pali Canon. The Mahayanists claimed these scriptures were given only to those kindhearted and enlightened beings. Those scriptures called the Mahayana sutras told of the significance of spiritual understanding. To t he Mahayanists, the dharma is not only a term used in writings, but the actual source of a conversion event that makes one realize the need for enlightenment as the absolute significance of life (Fisher, 2002, p. 164).Through the years, Buddha made his teachings in reference to the audience in which he spoke. Buddha in effect, had taught in different levels depending on the willingness of the audience to pay attention to the truth. As time proceeded, the audience changed, and the Mahayanists looked past the Pali Canon which was a teaching to help those with note capacities to the sutra which would teach the true meaning of the dharma. New Mahayana communities were formed. They called themselves Bodhisattvas.Bodhisattvas were dedicated to attaining enlightenment. These were teachings that expanded on those taught in the sutra. Bodhisattvas believed that not only were there special people who could gain spiritual growth it could be obtained by the masses of people also. The goal was to achieve the enlightenment and to see in that enlightenment what you have not seen before, which is the divinity of the world (Loverade, n.d.).In accordance with these teachings, Bodhisattvas should become enlightened and return to help others to obtain the same goal. Those returning would not experience the suffering in which others were exposed. The idea is not only to become enlightened, but also to become like Buddha himself and be an enlightened one who returns to the world.ConclusionBuddha, born in 563 B.C.E brought teaching of enlightenment to the world. He taught that desiring brings suffering. He also taught his followers to respect other religions through an open mind and tolerance. Throughout Buddhisms teachings and beliefs runs the undercurrent of mutual respect and enlightenment. In essence, one cannot reach enlightenment without mutual respect. By integrating the four noble truths and the eight fold path an individual will reach an understanding of anatman and the im permanence that exists in life. Illusions will end and self-centeredness will erode and an individual will eventually be free from attachments and understand the truth of all things. Once enlightenment is reached by an individual, the individual is to become like Buddha and return to the world to help others.ReferencesAbout Buddha (2007). About Buddha. Retrieved July 31, 2009 from http//www.aboutbuddha.orgBerzin, Alexander, (1988). The Berzin Archives. Retrieved July 31, 2009 fromhttp//www.berzinarchives.com/web/en/archives/approaching_buddhism/world_today/buddhist_view_other_religions.htmlBeyond Intractability (2005). A free knowledge base on more constructive approaches todestructive conflict. Retrieved July 30, 2009 from http//www.beyondintractability.org/essay/respect/?nid=6573Bhikkhu, T. (2001- 2009). Right concentration. Retrieved August 3, 2009 fromhttp//www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/thai/suwat/concentration.htmlFail,L.F. (1982). Focus. Retrieved July 31, 2009 fromhttp//afe.eas ia.columbia.edu/japan/japanworkbook/religion/origins.htmlFisher, M.P. (2003). Living religions (5th ed.). Retrieved August 1, 2009 from UOPrEsource REL133Knierim, T. (2009a). The four noble truths. Retrieved August 2, 2009 fromhttp//www.thebigview.com/buddhism/fourtruths.htmlKnierim,T. (2009b). The noble eightfold path. Retrieved August 2, 2009 fromhttp//www.thebigview.com/buddhism/eightfoldpath.htmlLoverade, L. (n.d.). Five stages of consciousness in religion and the returning buddha.

Conflict Family

Ordinary People by Judith Guest is the story of a dysfunctional family who relate to one another through a series of extensive defense mechanisms, i. e. an unconscious process whereby actuallyity is distorted to reduce or prevent anxiety. The book opens with seventeen year old Conrad, son of swiftness middle-class Beth and Calvin Jarrett, home after eight months in a psychiatric hospital, there because he had attempted suicide by slashing his wrists. His mother is a meticulously orderly person who, Jared, through projection, feels despises him.She does every last(predicate) the right things attending to Jareds physical needs, keeping a spotless home, plays golf and bridge with other women in her social circle, further, in her own words is an emotional cripple. Jareds father, raised in an orphanage, seems anxious to please everyone, a commonplace reaction of individuals who, as children, experient parental indifference or inconsistency. Though a successful tax attorney, he is ju mpy around Conrad, and , according to his wife, drinks too many martinis. Conrad seems consumed with despair.A harvest to normalcy, school and home-life, appear to be more than than Conrad can handle. Chalk-faced, hair-hacked Conrad seems bent on perpetuating the family myth that all is well in the world. His family, after all, are people of devout taste. They do not discuss a problem in the face of the problem. And, besides, there is no problem. Yet, there is not one problem in this family further two Conrads suicide and the death by drowning of Conrads older brother, Buck. Conrad eventually contacts a psychiatrist, Dr. Berger, because he feels the air is full of flying glass and wants to feel in control.Their initial sessions together frustrate the psychiatrist because of Conrads inability to express his mites. Berger cajoles him into expressing his emotions by saying, Thats what happens when you bury this junk, kiddo. It keeps resurfacing. Wont leave you alone. Conrads s petty(a) but steady journey towards healing seems partially the turn up of cathartic revelations which purge guilt feelings regarding his brothers death and his familys denial of that death, plus the love of a good woman. Jeannine, who sings soprano to Conrads tenor There is no doubt that Conrad is consumed with guilt, the feeling one has when one acts contrary to a role he has assumed while interacting with a significant person in his life, This guilt engenders in Conrad feelings of low self esteem. Survivors of horrible tragedies, such as the Holocaust, frequently express similar feelings of worthlessness. In his book, Against All Odds, William Helmreich relates how one survivor articulates a feeling of abandonment. Did I abandon them, or did they abandon me? Conrad expresses a similar thought in remembering the sequence of events when the sailboat they were on turned over.Buck soothes Conrad saying, Okay, okay. Theyll be face now, for sure, just hang on, dont get tired, promi se? In an imagined conversation with his dead brother, Conrad asks, Man, whyd you let go? Because I got tired. The hell You never get tired, not before me, you dont You tell me not to get tired, you tell me to hang on, and then you let go I couldnt help it. Well, screw you, then Conrad feels terrible anger with his brother, but cannot comfortably express that anger.His psychiatrist, after needling Conrad, asks, Are you mad? When Conrad responds that he is not mad, the psychiatrist says, Now that is a lie. You are mad as hell. Conrad asserts that, When you let yourself feel, all you feel is lousy. When his psychiatrist questions him about his relationship with his mother, Calvin says, My mother and I do not connect. Why should it bother me? My mother is a very private person. This frame of response is called, in psychological literature, rationalization. We see Conrads anger and aggression is displaced, i. e. vented on another, as when he physically attacked a schoolmate.Ye t, he alike turns his anger on himself and expresses in extreme and dangerous depression and guilt. Guilt is a normal emotion felt by most people, but among survivors it takes on special meaning. Most feel guilty about the death of loved ones whom they feel they could have, or should have, saved. Some feel guilty about situations in which they behaved selfishly (Conrad held on to the boat even after his brother let go), even if there was no other way to survive. In answer to a examination from his psychiatrist on when he last got really mad, Conrad responds, When it comes, theres always too much of it.I dont know how to handle it. When Conrad is finally able to express his anger, Berger, the psychiatrist says to Calvin, Razoring is anger self-mutilation is anger. So this is a good sign turning his anger outward at last. Because his family, and especially his mother, frowns upon public displays of emotion, Conrad keeps his feelings bottled up, which further contributes to depress ion. Encyclopedia Britannica, in explicating the kinetics of depression states, Upon close study, the attacks on the self are revealed to be unconscious expressions of disappointment and anger toward another person, or even a circumstance deflected from their real direction onto the self.The aggression, therefore, directed toward the outside world is turned against the self. The article further asserts that, There are three cardinal psychodynamic considerations in depression (1) a recently sense of loss of what is loved or valued, which may be a person, a thing or even liberty (2) a conflict of multiform feelings of love and hatred toward what is loved or highly valued (3) a heightened overcritical concern with the self. Conrads parents are also busily engaged in the contrast of denial.Calvin, Conrads father, says, Dont worry. Everything is all right. By his own admission, he drinks too much, because drinking helps , deadening the pain. Calvin cannot tolerate conflict. Things must go smoothly. Everything is jello and pudding with you, Dad. Calvin, the orphan says, brokenheartedness is ugly. It is something to be afraid of, to get rid of. Safety and order. Definitely the priorities of his life. He constantly questions himself as to whether or not he is a good father. What is fatherhood, in any case? Beth, Conrads mother, is very self-possessed. She appears to have a highly developed super-ego, that part of an individuals personality which is moralistic , meeting the demands of social convention, which can be irrational in requiring accepted behaviors in spite of reason, convenience and common sense. She is furthermore, a perfectionist. Everything had to be perfect, never mind the impossible hardship it worked on her, on them all. Conrad is not contrasted his mother. He is an overachiever, an A student, on the swim team and a list-maker.His father tells the psychiatrist, I see her not creation able to forgive him. For surviving, maybe. No, thats not it, for being too much like her. A psychoanalyst might call her anal retentive. Someone who is fixated symbolically in orderliness and a tendency toward perfectionism. excessive self-control, not expressing feelings, guards against anxiety by controlling any expression of emotion and denying emotional investment in a t hing or person. She had not cried at the funeral. She and Conrad had been strong and calm throughout.The message of the book is contained in Bergers glib saying that, People who keep stiff upper lips find that its damn hard to grimace. We see Conrad moving toward recovery and the successful management of his stage of development, as articulated by Erikson, intimacy vs. isolation. At story end, his father is more open with Conrad, moving closer to him, while his mother goes off on her own to work out her issues. Both trying to realize congruence in their development stage (Erikson), ego integrity vs. despair.

Personal Ethics Essay

When faced with a decision which requires an ethical framework, my usual pattern of decision making follows a pattern of reflection and introspection. The introspective portion is both cerebral, that is found in a perspicacious analysis of the issue or matter at hand, and also intuitive, of which is to some degree an assessment of the unrestrained components of the decision at hand.However, intuitive introspection, at least in my opinion, transcends the boundaries of rationality as we understand it, and it even transcends our sagaciousness of delirious responses, so intuition, although critical to my confess decision making process is a slightly difficult aspect to illuminate. I once read the following paradigm somewhere. The origin of the paradigm is befogged to my present memory, but the paradigm was this whenever you are faced with a truly perplexing yes or no or do or dont or either or decision, and you re every(prenominal)y cant seem to make up your head teacher, flip a coin and assign heads to one outcome, and pursue to the other.Now, when the firmness of purpose of the coin flip is shown, assess your intent about the result and you will see what you wanted to do all along. In other words, check out your choice is between going to a movie or playing a video game with your friends online. You cant make up your mind which would be abetter choice, so you flip the coin, assigning heads to going to the movie, and tails to playing video games, vowing to abide by the result.Now, lets assume the result of the coin flip is tails staying home to play video games and you feel excited, pleased and happy right away without thinking. Then staying in is what you wanted all along. If the coin-flip result of tails staying home to play video games made you want to flip the coin again for a different result, then you would know the self alike(p)(prenominal) thing, that what you actually wanted to do was stay home and not go out to the movie. That is not to say that I make my decisions, trivial or profound, based on a coin flipWhat I am driving at is that we often have intuitive feelings that lurk below the level of our rational consciousness and we can access this intuition in some cases when making decisions. As someone who has little faith in absolute ethical systems, or in a morality which is based on abstract philosophy, I like to include my own feelings, as well as my rational understanding of ethical concepts when I am faced with decisions. The underlying principles which inform the way I live my life are also drawn from the aforementioned image of intuition or deep-introspection.For example, if I refuse a certain job offer, or even the offer of friendship on specific occasions this whitethorn have less to do with something which could be expressed in a linear fashion the job was too demeaning, or that person had the wrong hair-style or hobby, but with something that might be more difficult to articulate clearly, but which is much more crucial than any sounding notions that might be viewed by some as important gauges or cues. In short, I dont have any kind of maxim or concrete dress of principles edicts, I bank they are called but rather a sense of personal disposition and emotional bearing.For example, I dont like to abide commonwealths feelings viscerally I just do not like to witness their pain so I avoid doing so when I can manage it. On the other hand, I take a rather dim view of altruism or the notion of helping people or giving them charity. I feel awkward placing myself in a position where I am apt to start pitying or feeling sorry for people I myself dislike being pitied or felt sorry for, so I guess I assume it is the same for others. I tend to adopt the pursuit of happiness and personal joy (not to be confused with hedonism) as key aspects of my world view.That is, I am, at heart, an optimist who dislikes whining and cynicism and the pursuit of superficial self-gratification at the expe nse of others. That certainly does not mean that I advocate selflessness whatever that term may indicate as a way of life, but rather, that I view joy, success, and fulfillment at least to some degree to be communal in nature. It is necessary that all concede that everyone is a part of the human experience, no matter who or what they are. there are no exceptions.In my work, I try very hard to be both competent and respectful of those who I work with and for but I often find it difficult to refrain from voicing my opinions, especially when I believe there is a possibility that my input may be helpful. I realize that work is a primary form of self-expression and self-fulfillment in life. My caprice is that most people either love their jobs and derive a large part of their self-identity and worldly power through their jobs, or they hate their jobs and are constricted, limited, and suppress by them.So, to my mind, it is crucial that you endeavor as much as possible to find a job t hat puts you in the former rather than the latter course because so much of life keys off of ones work. One thing that I am convinced about is that everyone should bring the same emotional involvement and enthusiasm to their jobs as they very often bring to their hobbies, just as I believe most people should try to bring the same level of integrity and competence to their personal relationships as is usually required by their jobs. Obviously, I would not advocate the pursuit of money as a reliable indicator of whether or not a job is the right or wrong job.It is much more important that a job avail ones sense of self-esteem and emotional security than whether or not the financial rewards are above and beyond fair. That said, a fair recompense is always indicated because without it, maintaining self-respect and self-esteem is made more difficult. While there is no single litmus test for whether or not ones work is the right work for them, the emotional and intuitive aspects of de cision making can help as much in assessing a jobs strengths and weaknesses as a cold rational evaluation of the facts.

Brief of Methodology Techniques

All question methodology is made up of a combination of soft and quantitative constructs. The idea of the qualitative quantitative research continuum, as opposed to a dichotomy, is explored on scientific grounds. What ar known as qualitative methods ar often beginning points, foundational strategies, which often are followed by quantitative methodologies. Qualitative look.The qualitative, naturalistic come near is used period observing and interpreting reality with the forecast of developing a theory that will explicate what was experienced. In their Handbook of Qualitative Research, Denzin and Lincoln (1994) ac familiarity that Qualitative research is multi-method in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic show up to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers pick up things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.Qualitative research involves the assholevas use a nd collection of a variety of empirical materialscase study, personal experience, introspective, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactions, and visual texts the described routine and problematic moments and meanings in individuals lives. (p. 2) Qualitative info are defined by Patton ( 1990) as dilateed descriptions of situations, events, people, interactions, observed behaviors, direct quotations from people about their experiences, attitudes, beliefs, and thoughts and excerpts or entire passages from documents, correspondence, records, and case histories (p.22 ). Techniques of qualitative research are Interviews, Observation, Case study, and Action research. Interviews Qualitative interviews ware been responsive to the potentially invasive impact of researchers on the research process as the researcher is the primary research instrument. Observation Observation as a design feature is to attain depth of meaning from the data (i. e. , what seems salient in the setting). The researcher focuses in detail on the most pertinent factors in an ethnographic study. Case study The case-study method is one more design approach under the qualitative rubric.Case studies can be single-subject designs or based on a single program, unit, or school. Merriam (1988) describes that case-study research, begins with translating the research question into more specific and researchable problems, followed by techniques and examples of how to collect, organize, and report case-study data. Action Research Action research is used here to refer to ways of exploring eachwherelord experience which link practice and the analysis of practice into a single fertile and constantly developing sequence, and which link researchers and research participants into a single community of involved colleagues.Winter (1996) explains that action research is seen as a way of investigating professional experience which links practice and the analysis of practice into a single, con tinuously developing sequence (p. 13). Quantitative approach The quantitative approach is used while one begins with a theory (or hypothesis) and tests for confirmation or disconfirmation of that hypothesis. Quantitative research is often referred to as hypothesis-testing research (Kerlinger, 1964). Typical of this custom is the following common physique of research operations in investigating, for instance, the effects of a give-and-take or an intervention.Techniques of quantitative research are Surveys, Interviews, Questionnaires, Sampling, and Triangulation. Surveys Data are collected, typically either by interview or by questionnaire, on a group of variables. The objective then is to observe patterns of relationship between the variables. Unlike experimental research, the researcher does non intercede in the organization and observe the effects of the intervention. Information is collected on a number of variables, and the amount to which they are causally linked has to be in ferred.Interviews Quantitative researchers pretest their instruments to reassure the quality of their data. They ransack other researchers scales and theories to inform their theoretical understanding of the fundamental factors that may be present. They do long interviews and focus groups to discover to get into the points of view of those living through the situations they are analyzing. Questionnaires These are collections of questions that the respondent completes on his or her own. Sampling The sample of subjects is drawn to replicate the population.After the pretest measures are taken, the treatment conducted, and posttest measures taken, a statistical analysis divulges findings about the treatments effects. To support repeatability of the findings, one experiment typically is conducted and statistical techniques are used to establish the probability of the same differences occurring over and over again. Triangulation Triangulation might be looked at as a dependability checkbu t not always. It is possible that one source of data could be much more significant than other sources in understanding a particular phenomenon.Generally, though, the more sources one looks at the more expected one is to have a complete perception of the phenomenon. Sampling Techniques Random or Probability Non-random or Non-probability Random or Probability techniques are Simple random ingest, imperious random sampling, and Stratified random sampling. Simple random sampling In simple random sampling, all subject within the sampling frame has an able chance of being selected. This equal chance is consummate through a total randomness of selection.Systematic random sampling In systematic sampling, instead of picture sample subjects randomly from the sampling frame, systematic sampling draws subjects at different intervals along the list of subjects in the sampling frame. Stratified random sampling An approach that increases the probability of obtaining a representative sample yet avoids missing an significant subgroup is to draw a stratified sample. With stratified sampling, the sampling frame is first spaced into subgroups based on a variable that is considered important.Non-random or Non-probability is Cluster sampling, Quota sampling, Purposive sampling. Cluster sampling In cluster sampling, instead of individual subjects, logically occurring clusters, or groups, of subjects are used as the essential units of sampling. Purposive sampling With purposive sampling (also known as judgmental sampling), subjects are selected based on the researchers knowledge of the population and on the nature of the research. The researcher uses subjects as the sample who are judged as typical or representative of the population of interest. Quota samplingThis type of non probability sampling is quota sampling. Quota sampling contains features of both stratified sampling and purposive sampling. In quota sampling, variables that are indomitable to be significant to the resea rch question are identified. These variables are commonly demographic variables such as gender, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, age, and urban versus rural residency. Conclusion The qualitative-quantitative research methodology is supported scientifically by its self-correcting feedback loops. In each and every research study, the continuum operates.When one conceptualizes research this way and uses the integral feedback mechanism, positive things happen that are less probable to occur in a strictly qualitative or a strictly quantitative study. Work Cited Merriam S. B. (1988). Case study research in education A qualitative approach. San Francisco Jossey-Bass. Stake R. E. (1981). Case study methodology An epistemological advocacy. In W. W. Welch (Ed. ), Case study methodology in educational evaluation Proceedings of the 1981 manganese Evaluation Conference (pp. 31-40).Minneapolis Minnesota Research and Evaluation Center. Denzin N. K. , & Lincoln Y. S. (Eds. ). (1994). Handbook of q ualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA Sage. Patton M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed. ). Newbury Park, CA Sage Publications. Kerlinger F. (1964). Foundations of behavioral research. New York Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Winter, R. (1996). or so principles and procedures for the conduct of action research. In Zuber-Skerritt, O. (Ed. ) Action research for change and development. Aldershot Gower-Avebury.

Learning Team Reflection Essay

cookery PlanImplementing an in force(p) precept externalize is necessary in coif for a comp both to be successful. A structured cooking jut knocked out(p) for landslip Limousines testament ensure employees are aware of the companys objectives and goals. According to Bradley Stonefield, the facts of life invent for Landslide Limousine will entail three key components a set of occupys assessment, types of training methods, and training ratings strategies. Training offers reliable instruction and skill to an employee about the companys prospects and procedures. Properly instruct employees contribute to a companys achievement of goals and ultimate success.Each root wording member chose topics to pronounce and research effectively and apply there relevance towards the team discussion. Our first communication with Bradley Stonefield informed Atwood and Allen that he wishes to hire 25 employees and have a location in Austin, Texas. The second conversation with Mr. Stonefi eld led to entropy regarding the annual net revenue of negative $50,000 in his first year and a growth prescience of 5% over a couple of age. Most recently, Atwood and Allen has learned that Mr. Stonefield predicts that his annual employee turnover rate will be 10%, and his concern on salute for the training jut out.The needs assessment constitutes several aspects revolving nigh the daily deeds, various(prenominal) employees, environment, constitutional and demographical selective training of a argumentation. Operational abstractDesigning an operable plan for the Landslide Limousine service teachs the efficiency of various aspects within the small blood line operation. The exploit unremarkably begins with a period of observations, the group of individuals dischargeing the summary watches and takes detailed notes on a day-to-day operation of the limousine line of work in the initial stage. Logical reasoning methods assist in compiling the information used in the p rocess with various mathematical models and statistical summary. Operational compendium aims to determine whether individually area of the musical arrangement is contributing effectively to overall practiceance and the furthering of company strategy. Using the usable analysis to ensure that the business Mr. Bradley wants to start should align appropriately with the companys strategic plan. By examining the electric current writ of execution of the operational portion of an investment, and then measuring that against an established set of performance parameters and goals, operational analysis within the business advise reveal the companys strengths and weaknesses as well as any opportunities for improvement with the individuals he may want to hire for future employment.With all the detailed information our team gathered in order to best serve and provide the right information for this business, by conducting an operational analysis, this should seek to examine a subdue of f unctional areas within the business including strategic planning, customer results, and business results, financial performance, and quality of innovation. Now, the objective process should principally be to reassess existing processes and determine how objectives improve, how be minimized and even, on occasion, eliminating a task. Operational analysis ordure be a relatively transparent process for the company and meaningful in assisting a new business venture.Through a fewer manageable steps in the process, Landslide Limousine needs to assess their productivity and possibly allocate investments to ensure activities within the company are in line with the small business companys strategy. Studies prove that establishing a schedule benefits the completion of the process. This process may outline the timeline and resources necessary for completing the operational analysis. Outline strategies and methods accordingly and adhere to them during the process. Collect information to pro vide key insights into actual performance in comparison with strategic planning and performance goals. Complete an analysis gap to identify and report performance, comprise and benefits establish on an analysis of the actual performance data.Demographic AnalysisAccording to Bradley Stonefield, the demographic analysis that needs to be address is a specific population to describe the small business and its characteristics, such(prenominal) as income level, background checks, driving records, location and salaries. A demographic analysis is useful in a business plan, to describe the population where the business is located. Income level data is a steady-going indicator of residents consumption power. Income positively correlates with retail expenditures in many product categories. During commercialise evaluation, retailers look at the median or average household income, and seek a minimum number of households within a certain income arrange prior to establishing a business or set ting prices. Another common practice is to analyze the dispersal of household incomes. Different businesses may avoid extremely high or low-income areas. whatsoever specialty forge stores tar purport incomes above $100,000. Background checks often requested by employers for job candidates during employment screening, especially on candidates seeking a position that require high security or trust.Traditionally, background checks administered by a government agency for a nominal fee, but maybe administered by private companies. Background checks can be expensive depending on the information requested. Results of a background check typically intromit last(prenominal) employment verification, credit history, Driving history for a small business aspect and criminal history. Mr. Stonefield is en manakinle in locating a limousine company within the Austin, TX area. A small business is marvelous to dominate any particular market in a city. However, strategic use of location- ground m arketing can pay back you a viral hit in your suburb or street and this may be all it takes to double the turnover in the limousine business. Location-based go can provide the company with information about how many people check in for a certain area or business, which has analyze in most often and how many people have used an offer of this kind of service.This kind of information can be very useful in assessing the success of the companys location-based marketing program. The average wage for a Limousine Driver is $12.85 per hour in the state of Texas in 2011. tribe in this job generally do not have more than 20 years follow through. hold for this job rises steadily for more experienced sourers, but goes down significantly for the few employees with more than 20 years experience. Limo drivers have limited career advancementopportunities. Some acquire supervisory or management positions, while others train new drivers or receive preferred shifts. Moving into a dispatching or managerial role is another choice for experienced limo drivers.Organizational AnalysisOrganizational Analysis for this company is a means of measuring how the small business will do and how to identify ship canal to improve the company in order to ensure success into the future of the company. A strategic government agency in preparing this aspect is to use the SWOT analysis. This stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. These factors represent up the bulk of the way the study and be analyzed and can give a in great details a pretty good indication of how Landslide Limousine will do and how it could be expected to do move ship in the future in making profits. The results of the analysis will help Mr. Stonefield be able to make good decisions and improve any efficiencies while without making any major alters. Strengths within Landslide services are usually the starting point for this company.Internal/external factors should include a stable urinateforce, met hods and unproblematic strategies are a way to mainstream the total aspects of all local business within the area is which this is a key aspect. Weaknesses can come from all different locations and can be goodspread. This may include aging facilities, possible inexperienced/unprofessional drivers, outdated equipment, purchasing of quality vehicles fleets, price/packages, and areas of specialties. Opportunities should include new market creations, consumer based locations, overhead, and debts. Now, threats could possibly take on another aspect within the business. These can range righteous from local communities services to government products/services to the rules and regulations.Individual AnalysisCertain ideals manifest in behaviors of individual members and affect group dynamics. Task functions include behaviors such as identifying tasks, coordinating, clarifying and summarizing. Individual Analysis based off different levels and/or services provided by the limousine service help to decipher if business needs are met. This type of analysis can be based off a wide stream of studies in business. This specific analysis can have more disadvantages than advantages needed in order to find ways to being abusiness. Learning how to work effectively in a group situation is the key to success in many professions in business. Learning key ways to get the business from crawl, walk, run phase is another way employees have the advantage of learning how the aspects of business work in the community.Environmental AnalysisThis analysis scan can help assist in reasonableness the broader context in which individuals are operating in. By investing time, identifying key trends and environmental factors to obtain information for small business within the regions in which we want to base our business and all the studies that are included. Some small businesses and organizations frequently choose to review the external factors in the process, but it is grave to consider the inner(a) environment factors. These may include looking at the organizations internal capacities and resources, and projecting how to change in the future to meet the organization objectives.Another useful component to the analysis phase is to deal external customers in the local area and ensure all aspects of the locations are covered. Challenges observed and/or anticipated, or missed opportunities, and even basis such as how others described your individual work to get the process started may have a short-time or long-term effect. Environmental analysis uses a series of ranks and assessments in evaluating employee performance, customer satisfaction, and overhead coat are all similar factors during the first phase of the analysis.Training Methods take away training is liable to have a positive or negative affect on important issues in business. How a company conducts, training is a critical decision that every business has to make consciously. All features involved in effective tr aining should be considered, such as, time, cost, training environment, and training cost. The obstetrical delivery of the training is pertinent. If the delivery of the information is confusing to employees, the training does not occur properly and is a mishandle of time, resources, and capital (Ongoing Training A Method for Success, 2012). Various approaches to training are utilized and implemented.Types of MediaConsidering the impression Landslide Limousines anticipates on making, Atwoodand Allen Consulting recommends technology-based training. Technology-based learning may prove to be beneficial. Basic methods of learning through technology include interactive videos utilizing a computer in combination with a digital video (DVD). Web-based training programs or internet-streamed videos such as YouTube videos are increasing, popular tools among training methods. The aforementioned method is valuable in illustrating scenarios that the trainer would like to emphasize. These method s are conducive within a large group of people.Learning PrinciplesWhen opting to use technology-based learning, companies must(prenominal) ensure accessibility for employees. Learning principles, considered laws of learning, are discovered, tested, and benefit practical situations (Naval education and Training, 2010). The trainer must give birth the capability of applying the principles while instructing. Most importantly, the trainer needs to be clear on the objectives of the training, and relate it to the work environment. There are three types of learners optical, hearing and hands-on. Atwood and Allen Consulting recommend that Landslide Limousine combine the training methods and perform more interactive learning experiences that will accommodate the three types of learners.Using what the military medicine has called for years See one, do one, teach one (Naval education and Training, 2010). The trainer will teach the skill so the employees can see it, then the employees will de monstrate their knowledge displaying their proficiency, finally the employee will teach a new employee. Those that teach, learn. Trainers will be inclined to become familiar with the material, recall it accurately, and apply it effectively. This method is cost effective in the sense that when there is a time one employee must carry out the tasks of another, therefore causing no interruptions in business. This method works best for companies that are just beginning.Training for learning skills or factThe required training conducted is for skill and fact. The training enhances knowledge of skills that enforce germane(predicate) facts, in reference to training.Effectiveness of MethodsThe effectiveness of the methods of instructions can be verified by how the employee perform their duties, by employees questionnaires and/or testing,and by comments done by the trainers themselves (Naval Education and Training, 2010). The effectiveness of these methods displayed through the performance o f the employees.Training Evaluation StrategiesEvaluation on training is of utmost importance. Here is where a business learns of training that works versus training that is of no use to the organization. In order to evaluate specific training, addressing certain questions improve concerns of risk in that course of training. Potential questions are Did the trainees learn a specific skill, knowledge or performance? Did change occur and was it related to the training?Are the changes positively reflecting in productivity and to achieving organization goals? Will these changes occur with a different set of trainees using the same training criteria? (Chapter 8, 2013) Typically, training is a trial and error system. What may work for one individual may not necessarily relate to another type of learner. As mentioned previously, people learn in different manners. Some need visual aesthetics to increase their ability to comprehend the training. While others need a more tactile experience an d participate in the training. This is not an entirely new concept and has developed over the last ten dollar bill to include the use of technology to enhance learning. The same can be said for training and evaluation strategies. The idea behind training evaluation is to recognize the criteria of the training are met within the company. Using pretests to determine a suitable new hire reassures current employees that the individual grasps the goals and concepts of the business.An example of a pretest is as aboveboard as an application, a resume or orientation. All of this information allows management to decipher an individual based on experiences. Once training is underway, management will monitor and observe the associates reactions and the trainers methods of approach. This ingredient is extremely important considering the trainer. If the trainer does not connect with the class or leads them astray and off topic, the training becomes worthless and consumes the organizations tim e and money. The trainers obligation shall remain cost effective to the company and stay on task to complete the training in a time cost-efficient manner. Aside from management monitoring and observing, feedback is equally important, and cancome from employees, supervisors, managers, and customers.Collecting feedback for an organization is conducted a number of ways. Suggestion boxes placed randomly around the business provide anonymous suggestions from individuals employed in the organization or from customers who believe change is necessary. Feedback is also collected verbally either in a group of employees or individual basis. Sending surveys to clients containing pertinent information to the limousine service allows them to feel connected to the business and builds trust. The implementation of the feedback is the most important aspect to changing the current operational standards of the business. Managers need to rise above the concept of if its not broken, dont fix it. Busines s ontogenesis is constant and technology increases daily allowing change to happen more frequently, and not because its broken, but because a new element has become known and can be a useful tool in training.ReferencesEmail from Traci Performance Management Plan. (2015). Retrieved from University of Phoenix https//ecampus.phoenix.edu/secure/aapd/Materials/IP/curriculum/sb/HRM531/assignments/week5/intro.asp Naval education and Training. (2010). Personal Qualification Standards for Master Training Specialist. NAVEDTRA 43100-7C Ch. 1. Retrieved from Naval education and Training website Ongoing Training A Method for Success. (2012). Retrieved from http//www.lctmag.com/operations/article/41017/ongoing-training-a-method-for-success http//www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes533041.htmhttp//education-portal.com/articles/Salary_and_Career_Info_for_a_Limo_Driver.html http//www.studymode.com/essays/Individual-Analysis-Of-Working-In-a-712116.html

History of Digital Computer

The History of Digital Computers B. RANDELL Computing Laboratory, University of Newcastle upon Tyne This account describes the biography of the victimisation of digital figurers, from the bestow of Charles Babb advance to the earliest electronic gillyflowerd program calculators, It has been prep ared for Volume 3 of lHistoire Generale des Techniques, and is in the main based on the introductory text write by the origin for the book The Origins of Digital Computers Selected Papers (Springer Verlag, 1973). . Charles Babbage THE first electronic digital figurers were realised in the late 1940s. In most cases their stupefyers were unaware that earnestly only the grave functional characteristics of these estimators had been invented all all over a hundred historic period earlier by Charles Babbage. It was in 1821 that the English mathematician Charles Babbage became interested in the possibility of mechanising the computation and printing of mathematical t fittings.He s uccess fully readyed a miniature tool, which he c solelyed a remainder engine, capable of mould- tellledally generating successive determine of simple algebraic functions by means of the method of finite differences. This encouraged him to plan a complete appliance, and to getk financial backing from the British government. During the b regularizeing 12 years both Babbage and the government poured watch overable sums of m wizy into the attempt at create his Difference Engine.However the project, which called for the face of six interlinked instituteing instruments, to each superstar capable of adding ii eightfold-digit quantitative acts, together with an smart printing mechanism, was involveably beyond the technological capabilities of the era hence it has been claimed that the efforts expended on the Difference Engine were more than justified only if by the improvements they generated in automaticly skillful engineering equipment and practice.Althoug h Babbages plans for a Difference Engine were clean premature, the rudimentary scheme was vindicated when in 1843, inspired by their knowledge of his lick, George and Edvard Scheutz successfully demonstrated a takeing proto casing difference engine. A final magnetic declination of this model was completed 10 years later, with financial lookance from the Swedish government. Several raw(prenominal)wise difference engines ere constructed in the decades that followed, scarce such implements neer achieved the importance of more conventional bearinging cable cars, and when multi- archives accounting system of rules moulds became procurable in the 1920s it was found that these could be manipulationd basically as difference engines. However Babbages ideas soon progressed far beyond that of a special-purpose collusive machine in feature near as soon as he started work on his Difference Engine he became dissatisfied with its limitations.In picky he wished to avoid t he need to suck up the lavishlyest order of difference constant, in order to be able to engagement the machine directly for transcendental as soundly as algebraic functions. In 1834 Babbage started quick work on these matters, and on fusss such as element and the need to locomote up the fracture of the auxiliary mechanism which dealt with the assimilation of read digits. He positive several rattling ingenious methods of carry assimilation, precisely the time savings so obtainable would pack been at the cost of a broad amount of multifactorial machinery.This led Babbage to realise the advantages of having a virtuoso primalised arithmetic mechanism, the mill, separate from the work out axes, i. e. , columns of discs which acted merely as entrepot locations rather than accumulators. Babbages first idea for controlling the sequencing of the mingled subdivision mechanisms of the engine was to use barrels, i. e. , rotating pegged cylinders of the sort employ in musical automata. He first planned to use a determined of subsidiary barrels, with over-all control of the machine macrocosm specified by a tumescent central barrel with exchangeable pegs.However in June 1836 he took the major step of adopting a punched account mechanism, of the benevolent found in Jacquard looms, in place of the rather limited and cumbersome central barrel. He did so in the realisation that the formulae which specified the computation that the machine was to perform could therefore be of almost infinite extent, and that it would be a simple matter to change from the use of one and only(a) formula to a nonher.Normally formula computer menus, each specifying an arithmetic operation to be per organise, were to be read by the Jacquard mechanism in sequence, exactly Babbage withal envisaged means whereby this sequence could be broken and and so recommenced at an earlier or later peak in the sequence. Moreover he allowed the choice of the adjoining card whic h was to be utilize to be influenced by the partial results that the machine had obtained.These provisions allowed him to claim that computations of indefinite complexity could be performed nether the control of comparatively small sets of formula cards. Babbage talked at one time of having a caudex consisting of no less than curtilage imagine axes, each capable of holding a sign 40-digit denary tot, and planned to provide for go outing numbers from cards into the come in, and for punching or printing the values of numbers held in the store.The movement of numbers betwixt the mill and the store was to be controlled by a sequence of variable cards, each specifying which busy figure axis was twisty. Therefore an arithmetic operation whose operands were to be obtained from the store and whose result was to be returned to the store would be specified by an operation card and several variable cards. He on the face of it mean these diametrical kinds of control cards to be in separate sequences, read by separate Jacquard mechanisms.Thus in the property of perhaps 3 years Babbage had arrived at the conception of a everyday purpose digital computer consisting of a store, arithmetic building block, punched card input and output, and a card-controlled sequencing mechanism that provided iteration and conditional branching. Moreover although he continued to regard the machine, which he later came to call the uninflected Engine, as being principally for the tress of mathematical tables, he had a very clear grasp of the conceptual advances he had make.Basing his claim on the unbounded number of operation and variable cards that could be employ to control the machine, the ease with which conglomerate conditional branches could be built from a sequence of simple ones, and the fact that automatic input and output, and duple precision arithmetic, were provided, he stated that . . . it appears that the all in all of the conditions which modify a finite machine to make calculations of infinite extent are fulfilled in the Analytical Engine . . . . I have converted the timelessness of space, which was required by the conditions of the problem, into the infinity of time. Because separate, unless accessoryd, sequences of cards were needed to control the Analytical Engine the concept of a program as we know it now does not appear very c1early in contemporaneous comments of the machine. However there is evidence that Babbage had clear the fact that the instruction punched on the cards which controlled the engine could itself have been manipulated by an automatic machine-for example he suggested the possibility of the Analytical Engine itself being utilise to assist in the preparation of spacey sequences of control cards.Indeed in the description of the use of the Analytical Engine written by Lady Lovelace, in collaboration with Babbage, there are passages which would appear to indicate that it had been realised that an Analyti cal Engine was fully capable of manipulating symbolic as well as arithmetical quantities. Probably Babbage himself realised that the complete Analytical Engine was impractical to build, besides he spent much of the rest of his smell shrewd and re projecting mechanisms for the machine.The realisation of his dream had to carry the development of a totally new technology, and an era when the abundant finances and facilities required for an automatic computer would be make available, the need at last being widely enough appreciated. He was a hundred ahead of his time, for as one of the pioneers of the modern electronic digital computer has written Babbage was moving in a world of logical form and placement architecture, and was familiar with and had solutions for problems that were not to be discussed in the literature for an separate nose candy years. He died in 1871, going an immense collection of engineering drawings and documents, but merely a small portion of the Analytica l Engine, consisting of an addition and a printing mechanism, whose assembly was completed by his son, Henry Babbage. This machine and Babbages engineering drawings are now in the Science Museum, London. 2. Babbages direct successors Some years after Babbages conclusion his son Henry Babbage recommenced work on the construction of a mechanical calculating machine, basing his efforts on the designs his induce had do for the Mill of the Analytical Engine.This work was started in 1888 and carried on very intermittently. It was completed only in about 1910 when the Mill, which integrate a printing mechanism, was demonstrated at a meeting of the Royal astronomic Society. By this date thus far the work of a small-minded-kn have got successor to Charles Babbage, an Irish accountant named Percy Ludgate, was already well advanced. Ludgate started work in 1903 at the age of 20 on an entirely novel scheme for do arithmetic on decimal fraction numbers.Decimal digits were to be represen ted by the lateral position of a slide metal rod, rather than the angular position of a geared disc. The basic operation provided was times, which employ a complicated mechanism for calculating the both-digit products resulting from multiplying pairs of decimal digits. together. The scheme involved first transforming the digits into a form of logarithm, adding the logarithms together, and hence converting the result back into a twain-digit sum.This scheme is sooner an unlike every known to have been used in earlier mechanical calculators, or for that matter since, although there had been several calculating machines constructed that used constitutive(a) multiplication tables to obtain two-digit products the earliest known of these was that invented by Bollee in 1887. It is in fact difficult to see any advantages to Ludgates logarithmic scheme, although his form of number representation is reminiscent of that used in motley mechanical calculating whatsiss in the following decades.So striking are the differences between Ludgates and Babbages ideas for mechanical arithmetic that there is no reason to dispute Ludgates statement that he did not learn of Babbages prior work until the later stages of his own. It seems likely that Babbage was the scourtual inspiration for Ludgate to investigate the provision of a sequence control mechanism. Here he made an advance over the rather awkward outline that Babbage had planned, involving separate sets of operation and variable cards.Instead his machine was to have been controlled by a single perforated melodic theme tape measure, each row of which represented an instruction consisting of an operation code and four address fields. Control transfers simply involved moving the tape the appropriate number of rows forwards or backwards. Moreover he to a fault envisaged the provision of what we would now call subroutines, represented by sequences of perforations around the circumference of special cylinders-one such cylinder was to be provided The Institute of maths and its Applications 2 for division.The machine was also to be controllable from a keyboard, a byproduct of whose operation would be a perforated tape which could indeed be used to enable the sequence of manually controlled operations to be repeated automatically. Ludgate estimated that his Analytical Machine would be capable of multiplying two twenty-digit numbers in about 10 minute of arcs, and that, in considerable contrast to Babbages Analytical Engine, it would be portable. However there is no evidence that he ever tried to construct the machine, which he apparently worked on alone, in his spare time.He died in 1922, and even if at this time his plans for the Analytical Machine relieve existed there is now no play along of them, and our knowledge of the machine depends almost entirely on the one description of it that he published. The next person who is known to have followed in the footsteps of Babbage and to have worke d on the problems of designing an analytical engine was Leonardo Torres y Quevedo. Torres was born in the province of Santander in Spain in 1852.Although sufficient as a civil engineer he devoted his career to scientific research, and in particular to the design and construction of an astonishing variety of calculating bends and automata. He gained great renown, in particular in France and in Spain, where he became President of the Academy of Sciences of Madrid, and where following his death in 1936 an institute for scientific research was named after him. Torres first worked on analog calculating doohickeys, including equation solvers and integrators.In the early 1900s he built various(a) radio-controlled devices, including a torpedo and a boat which, according to the number of pulses it received, could select between various rudder positions and upper berths, and cause a flag to be run up and down a mast. In 1911 he made and successfully demonstrated the first of two chess-p laying automata for the end game of king and rook against king. The machine was fully automatic, with electrical sensing of the positions of the pieces on the board and a mechanical arm to move its own pieces. The second machine was built in 1922, and used magnets downstairsneath the board to move the pieces. ) In all this work, he was deliberately exploiting the new facilities that electromechanical techniques offered, and challenging received ideas as to the limitations of machines. He picked on Babbages Analytical Engine as an important and interesting technical challenge, and in 1914 published a piece card incorporating detailed schematic designs for a suitable set of electro-mechanical components.These included devices for storing, comparing and multiplying numbers, and were accompanied by a discussion of what is now called planless vizor number representation. He demonstrated the use of the devices in a design for a special-purpose program-controlled calculator. The prog ram was to be represented by areas of conductive material placed on the locate of a rotating drum, and incorporated a means for specifying conditional branching. Torres clearly never mean to construct a machine to his design, but 6 years later he built, and successfully demonstrated, a typewriter-controlled calculating machine primarily to demonstrate that an electromechanical analytical engine was completely feasible. He in fact never did build an analytical engine, although he designed, and in galore(postnominal) cases built, various other digital devices including two more calculating machines, an automatic weighing machine, and a machine for playing a game somewhat like the game of Nim. However there seems little reason to doubt that, should the need have been sufficiently pressing, Torres would indeed have built a complete analytical engine.In the event, it was not until the 1939-1945 war that the desirability of liberalscale fully automatic calculating machines became so c lear that the necessary environment was created for Babbages concept to pop off a reality. Before this occurred there is known to have been at least one further effort at designing an analytical engine. This was by a Frenchman, Louis Couffignal, who was motivated mainly by a desire to muffle the incidence of errors in numeric computations.He was familiar with the work of Babbage and Torres y Quevedo but, in contrast to their designs, proposed to use binary program star number representation. The binary digits of stored numbers were to be represented by the lateral position of a set of parallel bars controlled by electro-magnets. The various arithmetic operations were to be performed by relay networks, the whole machine being controlled by perforated tapes. Couffignal apparently had every intention of building this machine, in companionship with the Logabax Company, but presumably because of the war never did so.However after the war he was in charge of an electronic computer pr oject for the Institut Blaise Pascal, the design study and construction of the machine being in the hands of the Logabax Company. With Couffignals pre-war plans, the line of direct succession to Babbages Analytical Engine seems to have come to an end. Most of the wartime computer projects were apparently carried out in ignorance of the extent to which umpteen of the problems that had to be dealt with had been tackled by Babbage over a century earlier. However in some cases there is clear evidence that nowledge of Babbages work was an influence on the wartime pioneers, in particular Howard Aiken, originator of the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, and William Phillips, an early proponent of binary calculation, and various other influential people, including Vannevar Bush and L. J. Comrie, were also well aware of his dream. 3. The ploughshare of the punched card industry An initially quite separate thread of activity leading to the development of the modern computer originat ed with the invention of the punched card tabulating strategy.The capabilities of Herman Holleriths equipment, first used on a large scale for the 1890 US guinea pig Census, were soon encompassing considerably. The pilot film equipment allowed cards to hold binary information representing the answers to a Census questionnaire. These cards could be tabulated, one by one, using a machine which sensed the presence of holes in the card electrically and could be wired to count the number of cards processed in which particular holes or combinations of holes had been punched. A device could be attached to such a tabulator which assisted the manual sorting of cards into a number of separate sequences.Within 10 years automatic card handling mechanisms, which greatly change magnitude the speed of machine operation, and addition units, which enabled card tabulators to sum decimal numbers punched on cards, had been provided. The system soon came into commonplace use in the accounting dep artments of various commercial organisations, as well as being used for statistical tabulations in many countries of the world. After the 1900 US Census relations between Hollerith and the Census berth deteriorated, and the Bureau began to manufacture its own equipment for use in the 1910 Census.The person in charge of this work was crowd together Powers who circumvented Holleriths patents by producing a mechanical card reading apparatus. He retained the patent rights to his inventions and formed his own company which eventually merged with Remington Rand in 1927. In 1911 Hollerith sold his own company, the Tabulating Machine Company, which he had formed in 1896, and it was shortly afterwards merged with two other companies to form the Computing-TabulatingRecording Company. This company which was under the direction of Thomas J.Watson from 1914 became the International Business Machines Corporation in 1924. During the 1920s and 1930s punched card systems actual steadily, aided no doubt by the stimulus of competition, not only in the the States but also in Britain, where the Hollerith and Powers-based systems continued to be marketed under the names of their original inventors, while in France a third manufacturer, Compagnie Machines Bull, was also active agent. Unfortunately the people involved in this work did not in general publish technical papers and their work has received little public recognition.Thus full appreciation of the contribution of IBM development engineers, such as J. W. Bryce, one of the most prolific inventors of his era, will probably have to await an analysis of the patent literature. One inventor whose work has, however, been documented is Gustav Tauschek, a self-taught Viennese engineer, with more than two hundred patents in the computing field to his credit. While working for Rheinische Metallund Maschinenfabrik he designed and built a punched card electromechanical accounting machine.His other patents, many of which were filed wh ilst he was under contract to IBM during the 1930s, also included a reading-writing-calculating machine which used photocells to compare printed input characters with templates held on photographic film, a number storage device using magnetised steel plates, and an electromechanical accounting machine designed for use in small banks capable of storing the records of up to 10 000 accounts. By the 1930s printing tabulators were available which worked at approximately atomic number 6 cards per minute, and there were sorters which worked at 400 cards per minute.The machines were controlled by fairly intricate plugboards, but arithmetic and logical computations involving sequences of operations of any great complexity were carried out by repeated processing of sets of cards, under the direction of operators. Various attempts were made to supplement the functional capabilities of punched card systems by linking together otherwise fissiparous machines. One such system, the Synchro-Madas machine, incorporated a typewriter/accounting machine, an automatic calculating machine and an automatic card punch.These were linked together so that a single action by the operator sitting at the typewriter/accounting machine would control several operations on the different machines. One other system involving a set of inter-linked card machines, although very different in concept and scale from the Synchro-Madas machine, is worth lifting. This is the Remote-control account statement system which was experimented with in a Pittsburgh department store, also in the mid-1930s. The system involved 250 terminals connected by shout out lines to 20 Powers card punch/tabulators and 15 on-line typewriters.The terminals transmitted entropy from punched merchandise tags which were used to produce punched sales record cards, later used for customer billing. The typewriter terminals were used for credit authorisation purposes. The intended peak transaction rate was 9000 per hour. Even dur ing the 1920s punched card systems were used not only for accounting and the compilation of statistics, but also for complex statistical calculations. However the first important scientific performance of punched card systems was made by L.J. Comrie in 1929. Comrie was Superintendent of HM Nautical Almanac Office until 1936, and so founded the scientific Computing Service. He made a speciality of putting commercial computing machinery to scientific use, and introduced Hollerith equipment to the Nautical Almanac Office. His calculations of the future positions of the Moon, which involved the punching of half a million cards, stimulated many other scientists to exploit the possibilities of punched card systems. One such scientist was Wallace J.Eckert, an astronomer at Columbia University, which already had been donated machines for a statistical Laboratory by IBM in 1929, including the Statistical Calculator, a specially developed tabulator which was the forerunner of the IBM token 600 serial publication of multiplying punches, and of the mechanisms used in the Harvard stigmatize I machine. With assistance from IBM in 1934 Eckert set up a scientific computing laboratory in the Columbia Astronomy Department, a laboratory which was later to become the Thomas J.Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau. In order to facilitate the use of his punched card equipment Eckert developed a centralised control mechanism, linked to a quantitative tabulator, a summary punch and a multiplying punch, so that a short cycle of different operations could be performed at high speed. The control mechanism which was based on a stepping switch enabled many calculations, even some solutions 4 The Institute of Mathematics and its Applications of differential equations, to be performed completely automatically.The potential of a system of inter-connected punched card machines, controlled by a fully general-purpose sequencing mechanism, and the essential similarity of such a system to Bab bages plans for an Analytical Engine, were discussed in an hold published by Vannevar Bush in 1936. Bush was at this time already renowned for his work on the first differential analyser, and during the war held the influential position of Director of the US Office of Scientific Research and Development.In fact an attempt was made to build such a system of inter-connected punched card machines at the Institut fur Praktische Mathematik of the Technische Hochschule, Darmstadt, in Germany during the war. The plans called for the inter-connection of a standard Hollerith multiplier and tabulators, and specially constructed division and function generators, using a punched tape sequence control mechanism. Work was abandoned on the project following a erosive air raid in September 1944. However, by this stage, in the United States much more aspiring(prenominal) efforts were being made to apply the expertise of punched card equipment designers.The efforts originated in 1937 with a propo sal by Howard Aiken of Harvard University that a large-scale scientific calculator be constructed by inter-connecting a set of punched card machines via a manipulate control panel. This would be plugged so as to govern the transmission of numerical operands and the sequencing of arithmetic operations. through with(predicate) Dr. Shapley, director of the Harvard College Observatory, Aiken became acquainted with Wallace Eckerts punched card installation at Columbia University.These contacts helped Aiken to persuade IBM to undertake the assess of developing and building a machine to his basic design. For IBM, J. W. Bryce assigned C. D. Lake, F. E. Hamilton and B. M. Durfee to the task. Aiken later acknowledged these three engineers as co-inventors of the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, or Harvard position I as it became known. The machine was built at the IBM development laboratories at Endicott and was demonstrated there in January 1943 before being shipped to Harvard, w here it became available in May 1944.In dreadful of that year IBM, in the person of Thomas J. Watson, donated the machine to Harvard where it was used initially for classified work for the US Navy. The design of the Harvard Mark I followed the original proposals by Aiken fairly closely, but it was built using a large number of the major components used in the various types of punched card machines past manufactured, rather than from a set of complete machines themselves. It incorporated 72 storage counters each of which served as both a storage location, and as a complete adding and subtracting machine.Each counter consisted of 24 electromechanical counter wheels and could store a signed 23digit decimal number. A special multiply/divide unit, and units for obtaining the value of previously computed functions held on perforated tape, and for performing interpolation, were provided together with input/output equipment such as card readers and punches, and typewriters. The various m echanisms and counter wheels were all control and synchronised by a single gearconnected mechanical system extending along nearly the entire length of the calculator.A main sequence control mechanism incorporating a punched tape reader governed the operation of the machine. Each swimming row on the tape had space for three groups of eight holes, known as the A, B and C groups. Together these specified a single instruction of the form Take the number out of unit A, deliver it to unit B, and start operation C. Somewhat surprisingly, in view of Aikens knowledge of Babbages work and writings, no provision was made to begin with for conditional branching.As it was, such provision was only made later when a subsidiary sequence control mechanism was built at Harvard and incorporated into the machine. The Harvard Mark I was a massive machine over 50 feet long, built on a lush scale. Being largely mechanical its speed was somewhat limited for example multiplication took 6 seconds but i t continued in active use at Harvard until 1959. It has an important place in the history of computers although the long-held public opinion that it was the worlds first operational programcontrolled computer was proved to be false, once the lucubrate of Zuses wartime work in Germany became known.It marked a major step by IBM towards full involvement in the design of general-purpose computers and, with ENIAC and the Bell call in Laboratories Series, represents the starting point of American computer developments. After climax of the Mark I, Aiken and IBM pursued independent paths. Aiken, still distrustful of the reliability of electronic components, moved to electromagnetic relays for the construction of the Harvard Mark II, another paper-tape-sequenced calculator.This machine had an internal store which could hold about 100 dccimal floating point numbers. One of the most interesting aspects of the machine was that it could be operated either as a single computer or as two separ ate ones. The complete system incorporated four of each type of input/output device, namely sequence tape readers, data tape readers and punches, numerical function tape readers and output printers. It also had multiple arithmetic facilities, including two adders and four multipliers (taking 0. 7 second) which could all be used simultaneously.Detailed design of the machine, which was intended for the US Naval Proving Ground, Dahlgren, Virginia, began at Harvard early in 1945, and the machine was completed in 1947. Afterwards Aiken and his colleagues went on to design the Mark III, an electronic computer with magnetic drum storage, completed in 1950, and the Mark IV, which incorporated 200 magnetic core shift registers, completed in 1952. The designers of IBMs next machine, the Pluggable Sequence Relay Calculator, included two of the Harvard Mark Is design team, namely C. D. Lake and B. M.Durfee, but the machine in fact had more in common with IBMs earlier calculating punches than wi th the Mark I like the punches it was controlled using plugboard-specified sequencing, rather than by a sequence control tape of essentially unlimited length. Its relay construction resulted in its basic operation speed being considerably windy than the Mark I, although it lacked the Mark Is ease and flexibility of programming, demanding instead the kind of detailed design of parallel subsequencing that one sees nowadays at the microprogramming level of some computers.Great stress was raid by the designers on the efficient use of punched card input/output, and it was claimed that in many cases, where other machines internal storage susceptibility proved inadequate, the IBM relay calculators could outperform even the contemporary electronic computers. Several machines were built, the first of which was delivered in declination 1944 to the Aberdeen Proving Ground, and two were installed at the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory that IBM had set up at Columbia University under the directorship of Wallace Eckert.The Relay Calculator was followed by the giant IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator, a machine which was very much in the custom of the Mark I. Wallace Eckert was responsible for the logical organisation of the machine, with Frank Hamilton being the principal(prenominal) engineer on the project. The design was a compromise between Eckerts wish, for performance reasons, to use electronic components to the full, and Hamiltons preference for electro-mechanical relays, on grounds of reliability. As a result vacuum tubes were used for the arithmetic unit, the control circuitry, and the 8 word high-speed store, relays being used elsewhere.In addition to the 8 word store there was a 150 word random access electro-magnetic store and storage for 20000 numbers in the form of punched tapes. Numbers would be read from the electro-magnetic store, or in sequence from the punched tape store, at the speed of the multiplier, i. e. , every 20 milliseconds. The design was started in 1945, and the machine was built in great secrecy at Endicott, before being moved to New York metropolis, where it was in public unveiled at an elaborate dedication service in January 1948. The most important aspect of the SSEC, credited to R. R.Seeber, was that it could perform arithmetic on, and consequently execute, stored instructions it was almost certainly the first operational machine with these capabilities. This led to IBM obtaining some very important patents, but the machine as a whole was soon regarded as somewhat anachronistic and was dismantled in 1952. It had however provided IBM with some valuable experience for example, Hamilton and some of his engineering colleagues went on to design the highly successful IBM 650, and many of the SSEC programmers later became members of the IBM 701 programming group.Finally, mention should be made of one other machine manufactured by IBM which can be classed as a precursor to the modern electronic digi tal computer. This was the Card Programmed Calculator, a machine which along with its predecessors now tends to be overshadowed by the SSEC. Like the Pluggable Sequence Relay Calculator, the CPC can t rail its origins to the IBM 600 series of multiplying punches. In 1946 IBM announced the Type 603, the first production electronic calculator. The IBM 603, which incorporated ccc valves, was developed from an experimental multiplier designed at Endicott under the direction of R.L. Palmer in 1942. One hundred machines were sold, and then IBM replaced it with the Type 604, a plugboardcontrolled electronic calculator, which provided conditional branching but, lacking backward jumps, no means of constructing program loops. Deliveries of the 604, which incorporated over 1400 valves, started in 1948 and within the next 10 years over 5000 were installed. In 1948 a 604 was coupled to a type 402 accounting machine by Northrop Aircraft Company, in order to provide the 604 with increased capacit y and with printing facilities. This idea was taken up by IBM, and formed the basis of the CPC.Nearly 700 CPCs were built, and this machine played a vital role in providing computing power to many installations in the USA until stored program electronic computers became commercially available on a reasonable scale. In the years that followed the conception of the CPC, IBM continued to develop its range of electronic calculators and, starting in 1952 with the IBM 701, an electronic computer in the tradition of von Neumanns IAS machine, took its first steps towards achieving its present dominant position amongst electronic computer manufacturers. . Konrad Zuse Konrad Zuse started to work on the development of mechanical aids to calculation as early as 1934, at the age of 24. He was studying civil engineering at the Technische Hochschule, Berlin-Charlottenburg, and sought some means of relief from the deadening calculations that had to be performed. His first idea had been to design special forms to facilitate ordinary manual calculation, but then he decided to try to mechanise the operation.Continuing to use the special layouts that he had designed for his forms, he investigated representing numerical data by means of perforations, and the use of a hand-held sensing device which could communicate the data over an electrical cable to an automatic calculating machine. The idea then arose of using a mechanical register rather than perforated cards, and, realising that the layout was irrelevant, Zuse started to develop a general purpose mechanical store, whose locations were addressed numerically.By 1936 he had the basic design of a floating point binary computer, controlled by a program tape consisting of a sequence of instructions, each of which specified an operation code, two operand addresses and a result address. Thus, apparently quite independently of earlier work by Babbage and his successors on analytical engines, Zuse had very quickly reached the point o f having a design for a general-purpose program-controlled computer, although the idea of conditional branching was lacking.More importantly, even though the various basic The Institute of Mathematics and its Applications 6 ideas that his design incorporated had, it now turns out, been thought of earlier (i. e. , binary mechanical arithmetic (Leibniz), program control (Babbage), instruction formats with numerical storage addresses (Ludgate) and floating point number representations (Torres y Quevedo)), Zuses great achievement was to turn these ideas into reality. Zuse had considerable trouble finding sponsors willing to finance the building of his machine.Despite his financial difficulties his first machine, the Z1, which was of entirely mechanical construction was completed in 1938, but it proved fallible in operation. He then started to construct a second, fixed-point binary, machine which incorporated the 16 word mechanical binary store of the Z1, but was otherwise built from se cond-hand telephone relays. Although the Z2 computer was completed it was inadequate for any practical use. However by this time a colleague, Helmut Schreyer, was already working with Zuse on the problem of producing an electronic recital of the Z1.This led to the construction of a small 10 place binary arithmetic unit, with approximately 100 valves, but proposals that Schreyer and Zuse made to the German government for a 1500 valve electronic computer were rejected and the work was discontinued in 1942. Earlier, in 1939, Zuse was called up for military service, but managed to get released after about a year, and for the first time received significant government backing for his plans. This enabled him to build the Z3 computer, a binary machine with a 64 word store, all built out of telephone relays.This computer, since it was operational in 1941, is believed to have been the worlds first general-purpose program-controlled computer. It incorporated units for addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and square root, using a floating point number representation with a sign bit, a 7-bit exponent and a 14-bit mantissa. Input was via a manual keyboard and output via a set of lights, in each case with automatic binary/decimal con fluctuation, and the machine was controlled by a perforated tape carrying single address instructions, i. . , instructions specifying one operand, and an operation. In addition to his series of general-purpose computers, Zuse built two special-purpose computers, both used for calculations concerning aircraft wing profiles. The first of these was in use for 2 years at the Henschel Aircraft Works, before being destroyed through war damage. some(prenominal) computers had fixed programs, wired on to rotary switches, and performed calculations involving addition, subtraction and multiplication by constant factors.Soon after consequence of the Z3, the design of an improved version, the Z4, was started. This was mainly electro-mechanical but incorporated a purely mechanical binary store similar to that which had been used for the Zl and Z2 machines. The partially completed Z4 was the only one of Zuses machines to survive the war indeed it eventually was completed and gave years of successful service at the Technische Hochschule, Zurich. The Z4 was inspected shortly after the war by R. C. Lyndon, whose report on the machine for the US Office f Naval Research was published in 1947. At this stage the Z4 had only manual input and output, and no means of conditional branching, although it was planned to add four tape readers and two tape punches, and facilities for repeating programs and for choosing between alternate subprograms. The machine was housed in the wine cellar of a farmhouse in the little village of Hopferau in Bavaria, and was not fully operational, but the mechanical store and various arithmetic operations and their automatic sequencing were successfully demonstrated to Lyndon.His report, although it giv es a fairly full description of the Z4 (with the exception of the mechanical store, which he was not allowed to examine in detail), made virtually no mention of Zuses earlier work. Indeed it was many years before any other English row accounts of Zuses work were published, and Zuses rightful place in the chronology of computer development became at all widely appreciated. 5. Bell Telephone Laboratories The potentialities of telephone equipment for the construction of digital calculation devices were not realised for many years.The first automatic telephone exchange, which used the step-by-step or Strowger switch, was installed in 1892. As early as 1906 Molina devised a system for translating the pulses representing the dialled decimal digits into a more cheery number system. Exchanges based mainly on the use of electromechanical relays started to come into use at the turn of the century, the earliest successful centralised automatic exchanges dating from about 1914. However, from the late 1920s various different calculating devices were developed using telephone equipment.Perhaps the most spectacular of these was the automatic totalisator. pari-mutuel machine, or pari-mutuel, betting became legal on British race courses in July 1929. Development of fully automatic totalisators consisting of ticket-issuing machines ascertain in various parts of the race course, a central calculating apparatus, and display boards which indicated the number and total value of bets made on each horse, and on the race as a whole, was already well under way.There were several rival systems. The Hamilton Totalisator and the totalisator produced by the British Automatic Totalisator Company were fully electrical, both as regards the calculations performed and the operation of the display boards, whereas the Lightning Totalisator used electrical impulses from remote ticket machines only to release steel balls which fell through tubes and trip a mechanical adding apparatus.In January 1930 the Racecourse Betting Control Board demonstrated at Thirsk Racecourse a new standard electric totalisator supplied by British Thompson Houston, built from Strowger switches. This machine which was transportable from racecourse to racecourse could accumulate bets on up to six horses at a maximum rate of 12 000 per minute. The machine had in fact been designed in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1928 but the first complete machine to be used in the USA was installed by the American Totalisator Company at Arlington parking lot nly in 1933. In succeeding years much more sophisticated totalisators, involving hundreds of remote ticket-issuing machines, were used at racecourses all over USA, and it was not until many years after the advent of the electronic computer that one was used as a replacement for the central calculating apparatus of the totalisator. One early little-known design for a calculating machine to be built from telephone relays was that of Bernard Weiner in Czechoslovakia in 1923.Weiner, in connection with the Vitkovice Iron Works, went on during the 1930s to design a more powerful automatic calculator. He did not survive the war, and nothing is known about the results of this work. Other early work was done by Nicoladze who in 1928 designed a multiplier based on the principle of Genailles rods. (These were a non-mechanical aid to multiplication which enabled a person to read off the product of a multidigit number by a single digit number. Four years later Hamann described not only various different styles of relay-based multiplier, but also a device for solving sets of simultaneous additive equations, and shortly afterwards Weygandt demonstrated a prototype determinant evaluator, capable of dealing with 3 x 3 determinants. Undoubtedly in the years that followed many other digital calculating devices were developed based on telephone relay equipment, particularly during the war for such military applications as ballistics calculations and cryptanal ysis indeed, as mentioned earlier, some of Zuses machines made extensive use of telephone relays.It is perhaps a little surprising that it was not until 1937 that Bell Telephone Laboratories investigated the design of calculating devices, although from about 1925 the possibility of using relay circuit techniques for such purposes was well accepted there. However, in 1937 George Stibitz started to experiment with relays, and drew up circuit designs for addition, multiplication and division. At first he laborious on binary arithmetic, together with automatic decimal-binary and binarydecimal conversion, but later turned his attention to a binary-coded decimal number representation.The project became an official one when, prompted by T. C. Fry, Stibitz started to design a calculator capable of multiplying and dividing complex numbers, which was intended to fill a very practical need, namely to facilitate the solution of problems in the design of filter networks, and so started the ver y important Bell Telephone Laboratories Series of Relay Computers. In November 1938, S. B. Williams took over responsibility for the machines development and together with Stibitz refined the design of the calculator, whose construction was started in April and completed in October of 1939.The calculator, which became known as the Complex Number Computer (often shortened to Complex Computer, and as other calculators were built, the Model I), began routine operation in January 1940. Within a short time it was circumscribed so as to provide facilities for the addition and subtraction of complex numbers, and was provided with a second, and then a third, teletype control, situated in remote locations. It remained in daily use at Bell Laboratories until 1949.The Complex Computer was publicly demonstrated for the first time in September 1940 by being operated in its New York City location from a teletypewriter installed in Hanover, New Hampshire, on the occasion of a meeting of the Ameri can Mathematical Society, a demonstration that both John Mauchly and Norbert Wiener attended. During 1939 and 1940 Stibitz started work on the idea of automatic sequencing and on the use of error-detecting codes. These ideas were not pursued actively until, a year or so later, the incursion of the war rovided a strong stimulus and the necessary financial climate. They then formed the basis of the second of the Bell Laboratories relay calculators, the Relay Interpolator. This was a special-purpose tape-controlled device, with selfchecking arithmetic, designed to solve fire control problems, and was built for the National Defense Research Council, to which Stibitz had been lent by Bell Laboratories. Although mainly used for interpolation it was also used for a few problems in harmonic analysis, calculation of roots of polynomials and solution of differential equations.It became operational in September 1943, and after the war it was handed over to the US Naval Research Laboratory, w here it was in use until 1961. The Model III relay calculator, the ballistic Computer, work on which started in 1942, was a much more complete realisation of Stibitzs early plans for an automatic computer, and although once again intended for fire control problems was much more versatile than the Model II. It was tape-controlled, and had a tenregister store, a built-in multiplier (designed by E. L.Vibbard), and devices for performing automatic look-up of tables held on perforated paper tape. Perhaps most impressive was the fact that the machine was 100 per cent. self-checked. The machine was completed in June 1944, and remained in use until 1958. The Model IV relay calculator was little different from the Model III, and the series culminated in the Model V, a truly general-purpose program-controlled computer, complete with convenient conditional branching facilities. (The final member of the series, Model VI, was essentially just a simplified version of the Model V. Two copies of th e Model V were built, the first being delivered in 1946 to the National Advisory commission on Aeronautics at Langley Field, Virginia, and the second in 1947 to the Ballistics Research Laboratory at Aberdeen, Maryland. With its multiple computing units, the Model V, which used floating point arithmetic, was what we would now call a multiprocessing system, and its problem tapes were the forerunners of the early simple batch-processing operating systems. Each of the two computing units comprising a complete system contained 15 storage registers.A single register could hold a floating point number consisting of a sign, a seven-decimal digit mantissa and a two-digit exponent. Decimal digits were stored in a bi-quinary form, using seven relays, and each register used a total of 62 relays. Each unit had independent provision for the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division and for 8 The Institute of Mathematics and its Applications taking the square root of floating point numbe rs, and for printing or punching its results.In addition a large set of tape readers, intended for tapes of input data, tabulated functions and programs, and for the problem tapes which controlled the running of series of separate programs, were shared by the two computer units. These units normally functioned as independent computers, but for large problems would be arranged to work cooperatively. Although somewhat slow in execution, the Model V set new standards for reliability, versatility and ease of switching from one task to another, and in so doing must surely have had an important influence on the designers of the earliest round of general-purpose electronic computers.In later years, quite a number of relay calculators were constructed, in both the USA and Europe, even after the first stored program electronic computers became operational, but the importance of their role in the history of computers hardly matches that of the Bell Laboratories Model V and its contemporaries. 6. The advent of electronic computers The earliest known electronic digital circuit, a trigger relay, which involved a pair of valves in a circuit with two stable states and was an early form of flip-flop, was described by Eccles and Jordan in 1919.The next development that we know of was the use by WynnWilliams at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, of thyratrons in counting circuits including, in 1932, a scale-of-two (binary) counter. By the end of the decade quite a few papers had been published on electronic counters intended for counting impulses from GeigerMuller tubes used in nuclear physics experiments. WynnWilliams work had a direct influence on the ideas of William Phillips, who apparently in 1935 attempted to patent a binary electronic computing machine.He built a mechanical model, which still exists, of the intended electronic multiplication unit but no other lucubrate are presently known of his planned machine. The first known attempt to build an electronic digital c alculating machine was begun by John V. Atanasoff in the mid-1930s at Iowa State College where there had been an active interest in statistical applications using punched card equipment since the early 1920s. As an applied mathematician Atanasoff had many problems requiring generalisations of lively methods of approximating solutions of linear operational equations.He first explored the use of analog techniques and with Lynn Hannum, one of his graduate students, developed the Laplaciometer, a device for solving Laplaces equation in two dimensions with various boundary conditions. By 1935 the realisation of the lancinate limitations of analog computing forced Atanasoff to digital methods. The disadvantages of mechanical techniques and his knowledge of electronics and of the work of Eccles and Jordan then led him to consider an electronic approach.He soon found that in these circumstances a base two number system would have great advantages. In 19361937 Atanasoff abandoned the Eccle s-Jordan approach and conceived a system employing memory and logic circuits, whose details were worked out in 1938. He received a grant from Iowa State in 1939, and was joined by Clifford E. Berry. With Berrys assistance a prototype computing element was built and operating by the autumn of that year. They then undertook the design and construction of a large machine intended for the solution of up to 30 simultaneous linear equations.At the heart of the machine there was a pair of rotating cylinders around the surface of which a set of small electrical condensers was placed. Each condenser could, by the direction of its charge, represent a binary digit although the charge would leak away slowly, it was arranged that as the cylinders rotated the charge on each condenser was detected and reinforced at 1 second time intervals so that information could be stored for as long as required.The condensers were arranged so as to provide two sets of 30 binary words, each consisting of 50 bits , the condensers corresponding to a single word being arranged in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the cylinders. The results of intermediate steps of a computation were to be punched in binary form on cards, for later re-input to the machine. In order that card punching and reading should be strong enough to keep pace with the computation, special devices were designed that made and detected holes in cards by means of electrical sparks.Ordinary input and output was to be via conventional punched cards, with the machine providing automatic binary/decimal conversions. The machine, with binary addition, subtraction and shifting as its basic arithmetic facilities, was designed to solve sets of simultaneous linear equations by the method of successive elimination of unknowns. The electronic part of the computer was operational but the binary card reader was still unreliable when in 1942 Atanasoff and Bcrry left Iowa State for wartime jobs, so that the machine was abandoned, never h aving seen actual use.In the late 1930s and early 1940s several groups started to investigate the use of digital electronic circuits as replacements for mechanical or electro-mechanical calculating devices, including several of the American business machine manufacturers such as IBM, whose work was described briefly above. The earliest known efforts at applying electronics to a general-purpose program-controlled computer were those undertaken by Schreyer and Zuse, also mentioned earlier.The next development which should be mentioned is the still classified series of electronic cryptanalytic machines that were designed and built in Britain during the war. The machines that are of particular interest, with respect to the development of electronic computers are the Colossi, the first of which was operational in late 1943, while by the end of the war ten had been installed. Each Colossus incorporated approximately 2000 valves, and processed a punched data tape that was read at a speed o f 5000 characters per second.Preset patterns that were to be compared against the input data were generated from stored component patterns. These components were stored in ring registers made of thyratrons and could be manually set by plug-in pins. The Colossi were developed by a team led by M. H. A. Newman. Alan Turing, who had been one of the main people involved in the design of an electro-mechanical predecessor to the Colossi, was apparently not directly associated with the new design, but with others provided the requirements that the machines were to satisfy.The comparative lack of technical details about the design of these machines makes it unreasonable to attempt more than a preliminary, and somewhat hesitant, sagacity of the Colossi with respect to the modern digital computer. It would appear that the arithmetical, as opposed to logical, capabilities were minimal, involving only counting rather than general addition or other operations. They did, however, have a certain a mount of electronic storage. Although fully automatic, even to the extent of producing printed output, they were very much special-purpose machines, but ithin their field of specialisation the facilities provided by plug-boards and banks of switches afforded a considerable point in time of flexibility in fact several of the people involved in the project have since characterised the machines as being program-controlled. Their importance as cryptanalytic machines, which must have been immense, can only be inferred from the number of machines that were made and the honours bestowed on various members of the team after the end of the war however, their importance with respect to the development of computers was twofold.They demonstrated the practicality of largescale electronic digital equipment, just as ENIAC did, on an even grander scale, approximately 2 years later. Furthermore, they were also a major source of the designers of some of the first post-war British computers, namely the Manchester machine, the MOSAIC, and the sentiency at the National Physical Laboratory. Fascinating though they are, none of the efforts described so far comes near to matching the importance of the work at the Moore schooldays of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, which led to the design of first the ENIAC and then the EDVAC computers.By 1942 the Moore School had, because of pressures of war, become closely associated with the Ballistic Research Laboratory of the US Army Ordnance Department, and the Moore Schools differential analyser was being used to supplement the work of the one at the Ballistic Research Laboratory on the production of ballistic tables. (The two analysers were identical and had been patterned on the original differential analyser invented by Vannevar Bush in 1930. ) One of the people who had worked with the analyser was John Mauchly, then an assistant professor at the Moore School.Mauchly was by this time well aware of what could be done w ith desk calculating machines and punched card equipment, although he was apparently unaware of the work Aiken was then doing on what became the Harvard Mark I, or of Babbages efforts 100 years earlier. He did however know of the work of Stibitz and had visited Iowa State in June 1941 in order to see Atanasoffs special-purpose computer. Another person who worked on the Moore School differential analyser, and in fact made important improvements to it by replacing its mechanical amplifiers by partially electronic devices, was J. Presper Eckert, a research associate at the School.Eckert had met Mauchly in 1941, and it was their discussions about the possibility of surmounting the reliability problems of complex electronic devices that laid the groundwork for a memorandum that Mauchly wrote in August 1942. This proposed that an electronic digital computer be constructed for the purpose of solving numerical difference equations of the sort encountered in ballistics problems. Also at the Moore School, acting as a contact lens officer for Colonel Paul N. Gillon of the office of the Chief of Ordnance, was Herman H. Goldstine, who before the war had been assistant professor of mathematics at the University of Michigan.In early 1943 Goldstine and Gillon became interested in the possibility of using an electronic calculating machine for the preparation of carrier bag and bombing tables. By this time Mauchlys 1942 memorandum had been mislaid, and it had to be recreated from his secretarys notes. The second version of the memorandum, together with more detailed plans drawn up by Mauchly and Eckert, was included in a report dated April 1943 which formed the basis for a contract between the University of Pennsylvania and the US Government to develop an electronic computer.A large team was assembled at the Moore School in order to design and build the computer under the supervision of J. G. Brainerd, with Eckert as chief engineer and Mauchly as principal consultant. As the project progressed its aims broadened, so that the ENIAC, as it became known, turned out to be much more a general-purpose device than had been originally contemplated, and although programs were represented by plugged interconnecting wires, it provided full conditional branching facilities.It was an incredibly ambitious machine incorporating over 19 000 valves and consuming approximately 200 kilowatts of electric power (The number of valves largely resulted from the use of them for high speed storage, and the choice of number representation, which can best be described as unary-coded decimal. ) The ENIAC incorporated 20 10-digit accumulators, which could be used for addition and subtraction, and for the temporary storage of numbers, a multiplier and a combination divider and square rooter.Addition took 200 microseconds, and multiplication of two 10-digit numbers approximately 3 milliseconds. Storage was provided for approximately 300 numerical constants in function tables, which co uld be set up by manual switches prior to commencing a computation. Input and output was via punched cards, using standard IBM devices. Early in its career the method of programming the machine was modified so that the program was represented by settings of the function tables without the need for changing the interconnecting cables.